Abstract
This chapter proposes how to supplement and integrate existing knowledge in order to proceed from rather fragmentary mosaic pieces of knowledge to a more substantial base for ecology and management of mixed-species stands. First we sketch how the empirical basis and understanding of mixed-species stand structure and dynamics may be systematically improved through concepts, answering the right questions, and experimental approaches. We then outline how better knowledge might be acquired from experiments and inventories in future. In addition we sketch the necessary next steps from the description and analysis of ecological functioning of mixed-species stands to systematically designing mixed-species stands. The subsequent sections address the limited body of scientific knowledge on the effects of mixing native and exotic tree species and the importance of interactions between trees and other crops for integrated land use. To better understand the economic effects of mixed and uneven-aged stands, research is required into the economic efficacy of mixed-forest management, non-probabilistic approaches to economic uncertainty, and economies of scale, which have largely been neglected in economic analyses so far. The final section addresses how changes experienced by tree species under climate change can be predicted and modelled.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ammer U, Schubert H (1999) Arten-, Prozeß- und Ressourcenschutz vor dem Hintergrund faunistischer Untersuchungen im Kronenraum des Waldes. Forstw Cbl 118:70–87
Amoroso MM, Turnblom EC (2006) Comparing productivity of pure and mixed Douglas-fir and western hemlock plantations in the Pacific Northwest. Can J For Res 36(6):1484–1496
Ares A, Fownes JH (1999) Water supply regulates structure, productivity, and water use efficiency of Acacia koa forest in Hawaii. Oecologia 121(4):458–466
Ashton P, Gamage S, Gunatilleke I, Gunatilleke C (1998) Using Caribbean pine to establish a mixed plantation: testing effects of pine canopy removal on plantings of rain forest tree species. For Ecol Manag 106(2–3):211–222. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00314-9
Assmann E (1970) The principles of forest yield study. Pergamon Press, Oxford, NY, 506 p
Bauhus J, Khanna PK, Menden N (2000) Aboveground and belowground interactions in mixed plantations of Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia mearnsii. Can J For Res 30(12):1886–1894. doi:10.1139/x00-141
Ben-Tal A, Nemirovski A (2000) Robust solutions of linear programming problems contaminated with uncertain data. Math Program 88:411–424
Bertsimas D, Sim M (2004) The price of robustness. Oper Res 52:35–53
Bourdier T, Cordonnier T, Kunstler G, Piedallu C, Lagarrigues G, Courbaud B (2016) Tree size inequality reduces forest productivity: an analysis combining inventory data for ten European species and a light competition model. PLoS One 11(3):e0151852
Bremer L, Farley K (2010) Does plantation forestry restore biodiversity or create green deserts? A synthesis of the effects of land-use transitions on plant species richness. Biodivers Conserv 19(14):3893–3915. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9936-4
Brockerhoff EG, Jactel H, Parrotta JA, Quine CP, Sayer J (2008) Plantation forests and biodiversity: oxymoron or opportunity? Biodivers Conserv 17(5):925–951. doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9380-x
Brus DJ, Hengeveld GM, Walvoort DJJ, Goedhart PW, Heidema AH, Nabuurs GJ, Gunia K (2011) Statistical mapping of tree species over Europe. Eur J For Res 131(1):145–157
Condés S, del Rio M, Sterba H (2013) Mixing effect on volume growth of Fagus sylvatica and Pinus sylvestris is modulated by stand density. For Ecol Manag 292:86–95
Condés S, Vallet P, Bielak K, Bravo-Oviedo A, Coll L, Ducey M, Pach M, Pretzsch H, Sterba H, Vayreda J, del Rio M (2016) Climate influences on the maximum size density relationship in Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) stands. For Ecol Manag 385:295–307. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2016.10.059
Cubbage F, Mac Donagh P, Sawinski Junior J, Rubilar R, Donoso P, Ferreira A, Hoeflich V, Morales Olmos V, Ferreira G, Balmelli G, Siry J, Noemi Baez M, Alvarez J (2007) Timber investment returns for selected plantations and native forests in South America and the Southern United States. New For 33:237–255
Dănescu A, Albrecht AT, Bauhus J (2016) Structural diversity promotes productivity of mixed, uneven-aged forests in southwestern Germany. Oecologia 182:1–15
Dirnberger G, Sterba H, Condés S, Ammer C, Annighöfer P, Avdagic A, Bielak K, Brazaitis G, Coll L, Heym M, Hurt V, Kurylyak V, Motta R, Pach M, Ponette Q, Ruiz-Peinado R, Skrzyszewski J, Šrámek V, Streel G, Svoboda M, Zlatanov T, Pretzsch H (2016) Species proportions by area in mixtures of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Eur J For Res 136:1–13
Evans J, Turnbull JW (2004) Plantation forestry in the tropics: the role, silviculture, and use of planted forests for industrial, social, environmental and agroforestry purposes, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford
FAO (2010) Global forest resources assessment 2010: main report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Ferris R, Peace AJ, Humphrey JW, Broome AC (2000) Relationships between vegetation, site type and stand structure in coniferous plantations in Britain. For Ecol Manag 136(1):35–51
Feyera S, Beck E, Lüttge U (2002) Exotic trees as nurse-trees for the regeneration of natural tropical forests. Trees 16(4):245–249. doi:10.1007/s00468-002-0161-y
Forrester DI, Pretzsch H (2015) Tamm review: on the strength of evidence when comparing ecosystem functions of mixtures with monocultures. For Ecol Manage 356:41–53
Griess VC, Acevedo R, Härtl F, Staupendahl K, Knoke T (2012) Does mixing tree species enhance stand resistance against natural hazards? A case study for spruce. For Ecol Manag 267:284–296
Gritti ES, Drössler L, Gary C, Mason B, Morin X, Pretzsch H, Jactel H (unpublished) Diversity-productivity: looking for a unified theory through meta-analysis
Hanewinkel M, Cullmann DA, Schelhaas M-J, Nabuurs G-J, Zimmermann NE (2013) Climate change may cause severe loss in the economic value of European forest land. Nat Clim Chang 3(3):203–207. doi:10.1038/nclimate1687
Hardiman BS, Bohrer G, Gough CM, Vogel CS, Curtis PS (2011) The role of canopy structural complexity in wood net primary production of a maturing northern deciduous forest. Ecology 92:1818–1827
Hardiman BS, Gough CM, Halperin A, Hofmeister KL, Nave LE, Bohrer G, Curtis PS (2013) Maintaining high rates of carbon storage in old forests: a mechanism linking canopy structure to forest function. For Ecol Manag 298:111–119
Hildebrandt P (2011) Die Wahl von Baumartenmischungen als forstökonomische Entscheidung unter Unsicherheit. Bewertungsbeispiele aus der Waldwirtschaft in Chile. Freising, PhD thesis Center of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, p 210
Hildebrandt P, Knoke T (2011) Investment decisions under uncertainty – a methodological review on forest science studies. For Policy Econ 13:1–15
Hildebrandt P, Kirchlechner P, Hahn A, Knoke T, Rodrigo Mujica H (2010) Mixed species plantations in Southern Chile and the risk of timber price fluctuation. Eur J For Res 129(5):935–946. doi:10.1007/s10342-009-0284-4
Kawaletz H, Mölder I, Zerbe S, Annighöfer P, Terwei A, Ammer C (2013) Exotic tree seedlings are much more competitive than natives but show underyielding when growing together. J Plant Ecol 6(4):305–315. doi:10.1093/jpe/rts044
Knoke T, Schneider T, Hahn A, Grieß VC, Roessiger J (2012). Forstbetriebsplanung als Entscheidungshilfe. Ulmer, Stuttgart. isbn:9783800176113
Knoke T, Paul C, Härtl F, Castro LM, Calvas B, Hildebrandt P (2015) Optimizing agricultural land-use portfolios with scarce data – a non-stochastic model. Ecol Econ 120:250–259. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2015.10.021
Knoke T, Paul C, Hildebrandt P, Calvas B, Castro LM, Härtl F, Döllerer M, Hamer U, Windhorst D, Wiersma YF, Curatola Fernandez GF, Obermeier WA, Adams J, Breuer L, Mosandl R, Beck E, Weber M, Stimm B, Haber W, Fürst C, Bendix J (2016) Compositional diversity of rehabilitated tropical lands supports multiple ecosystem services and buffers uncertainties. Nat Commun 7:11877. doi:10.1038/ncomms11877
Larson AJ, Lutz JA, Gersonde RF, Franklin JF, Hietpas FF (2008) Potential site productivity influences the rate of forest structural development. Ecol Appl 18(4):899–910
Le Maitre DC, Gaertner M, Marchante E, Ens E-J, Holmes PM, Pauchard A, O’Farrell PJ, Rogers AM, Blanchard R, Blignaut J, Richardson DM (2011) Impacts of invasive Australian acacias: implications for management and restoration. Divers Distrib 17(5):1015–1029. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00816.x
Letcher BH, Priddy JA, Walters JR, Crowder LB (1998) An individual-based, spatially-explicit simulation model of the population dynamics of the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker, Picoides borealis. Biol Conserv 86:1–14
Liang J, Crowther TW, Picard N, Wiser S, Zhou M, Alberti G, Schulze E-D, McGuire AD, Bozzato F, Pretzsch H, de-Miguel S, Paquette A, Hérault B, Scherer-Lorenzen M, Barrett CB, Glick HB, Hengeveld GM, Nabuurs GJ, Pfautsch S, Viana H, Vibrans AC, Ammer C, Schall P, Verbyla D, Tchebakova N, Fischer M, Watson JV, Chen HYH, Lei X, Schelhaas M-J, Lu H, Gianelle D, Parfenova EI, Salas C, Lee E, Lee B, Kim HS, Bruelheide H, Coomes DA, Piotto D, Sunderland T, Schmid B, Gourlet-Fleury S, Sonké B, Tavani R, Zhu J, Brandl S, Vayreda J, Kitahara F, Searle EB, Neldner VJ, Ngugi MR, Baraloto B, Frizzera L, Balazy R, Oleksyn J, Zawila-Niedzwiecki T, Bouriaud O, Bussotti F, Finér L, Jaroszewicz B, Jucker T, Valladares V, Jagodzinski AM, Peri PL, Gonmadje C, Marthy W, O'Brien T, Martin EH, Marshall AR, Rovero F, Bitariho R, Niklaus PA, Alvarez-Loayza P, Chamuya N, Valencia R, Mortier F, Wortel V, Engone-Obiang NL, Ferreira LV, Odeke DE, Vasquez RM, Lewis SL, Reich PB (2016) Positive biodiversity-productivity relationship predominant in global forests. Science 354. doi:10.1126/science.aaf8957
Lorenzo P, González L, Reigosa MJ (2010) The genus Acacia as invader: the characteristic case of Acacia dealbata Link in Europe. Ann For Sci 67(1):101. doi:10.1051/forest/2009082
Lundgren BO, Raintree JB (1982) What is agroforestry? Agrofor Syst 1:7–12
Luu TC, Binkley D, Stape JL (2013) Neighborhood uniformity increases growth of individual Eucalyptus trees. For Ecol Manag 289:90–97
Martin PH (1999) Norway maple (Acer platanoides) invasion of a natural forest stand: understory consequence and regeneration pattern. Biol Invasions 1(2/3):215–222. doi:10.1023/A:1010084421858
McKelvey K, Noon BR, Lamberson RH (1993) Conservation planning for species occupying fragmented landscapes: the case of the northern spotted owl. In: Kareiva PM, Kingsolver JG, Huey RB (eds) Biotic interactions and global change. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA, pp 424–450 (480 p)
Müller J, Hothorn T, Pretzsch H (2007) Long-term effects of logging intensity on structures, birds, saproxylic beetles and wood-inhabiting fungi in stands of European beech Fagus sylvatica L. For Ecol Manag 242(2):297–305
Müller J, Mehr M, Bässler C, Fenton MB, Hothorn T, Pretzsch H, Klemmt H-J, Brandl R (2012) Aggregative response in bats: prey abundance versus habitat. Oecologia 169(3):673–684
Nair PKR (1985) Classification of agroforestry systems. Agrofor Syst 3:97–128. doi:10.1007/BF00122638
Neuner S, Albrecht A, Cullmann D, Engels F, Griess VC, Hahn A, Hanewinkel M, Härtl F, Kölling C, Staupendahl K, Knoke T (2015) Survival of Norway spruce remains higher in mixed stands under a dryer and warmer climate. Glob Chang Biol 21:935–946
Noss RF (1990) Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conserv Biol 4(4):355–364
O’Hara KL (2016) What is close-to-nature silviculture in a changing world? Forestry 89(1):1–6
Ong CK, Black C, Wilson J (2015) Tree-crop interactions: agroforestry in a changing climate. CABI, Wallingford
Onyekwelu J, Stimm B, Evans J (2011) Review plantation forestry. In: Günter S, Weber M, Stimm B, Mosandl R (eds) Silviculture in the tropics, vol 8. Springer, Berlin, pp 399–454
Paul C (2014) Timber-based agrisilvicultural systems to facilitate reforestation in Panama – a silvicultural and economic evaluation. Dissertation, Technische Universität München
Paul C, Weber M (2016) Effects of planting food crops on survival and early growth of timber trees in eastern Panama. New For 47(1):53–72. doi:10.1007/s11056-015-9477-5
Paul C, Griess V, Havardi-Burger N, Weber M (2015) Timber-based agrisilviculture improves financial viability of hardwood plantations: a case study from Panama. Agrofor Syst 89(2):217–235. doi:10.1007/s10457-014-9755-9
Perfecto I, Vandermeer J (2010) The agroecological matrix as alternative to the land-sparing/agriculture intensification model. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107(13):5786–5791
Piotto D, Vıquez E, Montagnini F, Kanninen M (2004) Pure and mixed forest plantations with native species of the dry tropics of Costa Rica: a comparison of growth and productivity. For Ecol Manag 190(2–3):359–372. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2003.11.005
Potvin C, Dutilleul P (2009) Neighborhood effects and size-asymmetric competition in a tree plantation varying in diversity. Ecology 90(2):321–327. doi:10.1890/08-0353.1
Pretzsch H (2005) Stand density and growth of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.). Evidence from long-term experimental plots. Eur J For Res 124:193–205
Pretzsch H, Schütze G (2014) Size-structure dynamics of mixed versus pure forest stands. For Syst 23(3):560–572
Pretzsch H, Block J, Dieler J, Dong PH, Kohnle U, Nagel J, Spellmann H, Zingg A (2010) Comparison between the productivity of pure and mixed stands of Norway spruce and European beech along an ecological gradient. Ann For Sci 67:712
Pretzsch H, Biber P, Schütze G, Uhl E, Rötzer T (2014a) Forest stand growth dynamics in Central Europe have accelerated since 1870. Nat Commun 5:4967. doi:10.1039/ncomms5967
Pretzsch H, Rötzer T, Matyssek R, Grams TEE, Häberle KH, Pritsch K, Kerner R, Munch JC (2014b) Mixed Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica [L.]) stands under drought: from reaction pattern to mechanism. Trees 28:1305–1321
Pretzsch H, del Río M, Ammer C, Avdagic A, Barbeito I, Bielak K et al (2015) Growth and yield of mixed versus pure stands of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) analysed along a productivity gradient through Europe. Eur J For Res 134(5):927–947
Pretzsch H, Bauerle T, Häberle KH, Matyssek R, Schütze G, Rötzer T (2016a) Tree diameter growth after root trenching in a mature mixed stand of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica [L.]). Trees 30:1–13. doi:10.1007/s00468-016-1406-5
Pretzsch H, del Rio M, Schütze G, Ammer C, Annighöfer P, Avdagic A, Barbeito I, Bielak K, Brazaitis G, Coll L, Drössler L, Fabrika M, Forrester DI, Kurylyak V, Löf M, Lombardi F, Matovic B, Mohren F, Motta R, den Ouden J, Pach M, Ponette Q, Skzyszewski J, Sramek V, Sterba H, Svoboda M, Verheyen K, Zlatanov T, Bravo-Oviedo A (2016b) Mixing of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) enhances structural heterogeneity, and the effect increases with water availability. For Ecol Manag 373:149–166
Rao M, Nair P, Ong C (1997) Biophysical interactions in tropical agroforestry systems. Agrofor Syst 38(1):3–50. doi:10.1023/A:1005971525590
Richardson DM, Rejmánek M (2011) Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species – a global review. Divers Distrib 17(5):788–809. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2011.00782.x
del Río M, Pretzsch H, Ruíz‐Peinado R, Ampoorter E, Annighöfer P, Barbeito I, Fabrika M (2017) Species interactions increase the temporal stability of community productivity in Pinus sylvestris–Fagus sylvatica mixtures across Europe. J Ecol. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12727
Roessiger J, Griess VC, Knoke T (2011) May risk aversion lead to near-natural forestry? A simulation study. Forestry 84:527–537
Roessiger J, Griess VC, Härtl F, Clasen C, Knoke T (2013) How economic performance of a stand increases due to decreased failure risk associated with the admixing of species. Ecol Model 255:58–69
Scherer-Lorenzen M, Körner C, Schulze E-D (2005) Forest diversity and function. In: Ecological studies, vol 176. Springer, Berlin, p 399
Schütz JP (1997) Sylviculture 2. La gestion des forets irrégulières et mélangées. Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires Romandes, Lausanne, 178 p
Soares AA, Leite HG, Souza AL, Silva SR, Lourenço HM, Forrester DI (2016) Increasing stand structural heterogeneity reduces productivity in Brazilian Eucalyptus monoclonal stands. For Ecol Manag 373:26–32
Tahvonen O, Pukkala T, Laiho O, Lähde E, Niinimäki S (2010) Optimal management of uneven-aged Norway spruce stands. For Ecol Manag 260:106–115
Thurm EA, Pretzsch H (2016) Improved productivity and modified tree morphology of mixed versus pure stands of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) with increasing precipitation and age. Ann For Sci 73:1–15
Tobner CM, Paquette A, Reich PB et al (2014) Advancing biodiversity–ecosystem functioning science using high-density tree-based experiments over functional diversity gradients. Oecologia 174:609–621
Toïgo M, Vallet P, Perot T, Bontemps JD, Piedallu C, Courbaud B (2015) Overyielding in mixed forests decreases with site productivity. J Ecol 103(2):502–512
Uhl E, Kölling Ch, Pretzsch H (2014) Überlegungen zur Weiterentwicklung des Ertragskundlichen Versuchswesens in Bayern. In: Bayerische Landesanstalt für Wald und Forstwirtschaft (Hrsg) Das forstliche Versuchswesen in Bayern, LWF Wissen, p 76, 100 S
Utschig H, Neufanger M, Zanker T (2011) Das 100-Baum-Konzept als Einstieg für Durchforstungsregeln in Mischbeständen. Allgemeine Forstzeitschrift für Waldwirtschaft und Umweltvorsorge AFZ-Der Wald AFZ 21:4–6
Verheyen K, Vanhellemont M, Auge H et al (2016) Contributions of a global network of tree diversity experiments to sustainable forest plantations. Ambio 45:29–41
Wang X, Fang J, Tang Z, Zhu B (2006) Climatic control of primary forest structure and DBH–height allometry in Northeast China. For Ecol Manag 234(1):264–274
Webb LJ (1968) Environmental relationships of the structural types of Australian rain forest vegetation. Ecology 49(2):296–311
Weber M, Günter S, Aguirre N, Stimm B, Mosandl R (2008) Reforestation of abandoned pastures: silvicultural means to accelerate forest recovery and biodiversity. In: Beck E, Bendix J, Kottke I, Makeschin F, Mosandl R, Caldwell MM, Heldmaier G, Jackson RB, Lange OL, Mooney HA, Schulze E-D, Sommer U (eds) Gradients in a tropical mountain ecosystem of Ecuador, vol 198. Springer, Berlin, pp 431–441
Zenner EK (2015) Differential growth response to increasing growing stock and structural complexity in even-and uneven-sized mixed Picea abies stands in southern Finland 1. Can J For Res 46(999):1–10
Zhang Y, Chen HYH (2015) Individual size inequality links forest diversity and above-ground biomass. J Ecol 103:1245–1252
Zobel DB, McKee A, Hawk GM, Dyrness CT (1976) Relationships of environment to composition, structure, and diversity of forest communities of the central western Cascades of Oregon. Ecol Monogr 46(2):135–156
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Pretzsch, H., Knoke, T., Paul, C., Bauhus, J., Forrester, D.I. (2017). Perspectives for Future Research on Mixed-Species Systems. In: Pretzsch, H., Forrester, D., Bauhus, J. (eds) Mixed-Species Forests. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54553-9_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-54553-9_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-54551-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-662-54553-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)