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Emissions to the Air

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Shipping and the Environment

Abstract

Seeing the black smoke coming out of the funnel of a manoeuvring ship makes it easy to understand that the ship’s propulsion contributes to the emission of air pollutants. However, there is more than meets the eye going up in smoke. A vast majority of ships use fossil fuels, increasing a positive net contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere when they are combusted. Because the fuels that are used are often of low quality and possess a high sulphur content, a number of other air pollutants are also emitted. Emissions to the air from ships include greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide), sulphur and nitrogen oxides, with both acidifying and eutrophication effects, and different forms of particles, with impacts on health and climate. However, not all emissions to the atmosphere from ships originate from the combustion of fuels for propulsion and energy production. The handling of crude oil as cargo and compounds used in refrigeration systems cause emissions of volatile organic compounds and ozone-depleting substances. The sources of the most important emissions and relevant regulations are described in this chapter.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Tg = Teragram = 1012 g.

  2. 2.

    “The current estimate does not take account of the economic downturn experienced globally since 2009” (IMO, MEPC 64/5/5, Annex, p. 1).

  3. 3.

    The use, extraction and transport of materials is inherent to our economic system [22]. Globally, material use increased by a factor of 8 during the last century, slightly slower than economic development, although faster than population growth [23]. Although developed regions have adopted strategies for dematerialisation—using less materials for the same economic output—developing regions of the world still have a need for raw materials to construct roads, buildings, ports, railways and other forms of infrastructure, and a growing number of middle-class citizens will buy more goods. Per capita material and energy use is 5–10 times higher in developing regions than in developed regions. It has been forecasted that energy and material use will grow by a factor of 2–3 in the coming decades as agrarian regions become industrial [24].

  4. 4.

    Meinshausen et al. [25] showed how the probability of not exceeding a 2-degree warming ranged from 85 to 36 % when emissions ranged from the equivalent of 10 Gt CO2 per year to 36 Gt CO2 eq per year by 2050.

  5. 5.

    The Copenhagen Accord is a non-legally binding document presented and taken note of at the 15th meeting of the Conference of The Parties (COP) to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) in Copenhagen, 2006.

  6. 6.

    In certain contexts, the word “reduction” is used to indicate reduction vis-á-vis a business-as-usual baseline and not a reduction of total emissions. It is important to note that the issue of climate change concerns not efficiency per se, but whether efficiency can be improved at a sufficiently fast rate, i.e., faster than the growth of the demand for transport work by sea.

  7. 7.

    Report from the BCH subcommittee, MEPC 32/12, quoted in Strong [42]. This issue has still not been resolved. Any apportionment scheme for a nation or region must be sufficiently accurate to capture the implementation of abatement measures and must also be directed to those aspects that are within the sphere of influence of the same entity. Heitmann 43 reviewed apportioning regimes and concluded that allocation based on the nationality of the commercial operator is most fair because operators “have the most control over the emission levels of their ships by regulating speeds and routes”, although no single option can be thought of as “fair” [43]. The Kyoto protocol does not in any way hinder countries from including marine bunker fuel in their national emission inventories and might even provide countries with further motivation to take action themselves and increase pressure on the IMO process [26].

  8. 8.

    Article 2.2, Kyoto Protocol .

  9. 9.

    Article 2, Framework Convention on Climate Change, our emphasis.

  10. 10.

    In “Review of proposed market-based measures: relation to relevant conventions and rules”. The organization’s work on GHG emissions and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol. Submitted by the IMO secretariat to the Third Intersessional Meeting of the Working Group on GHG Emissions from Ships, 2011. Document number GHG-WG 3/3/9.

  11. 11.

    GHG-WG 3/3/9.

  12. 12.

    EU-27 represents the Member States in the European Union from 1 January 2007 to 30 June 2013

  13. 13.

    Percentage by mass, i.e., msulphur /mfuel.

  14. 14.

    Percentage by mass.

  15. 15.

    No specific regulation for PM emissions has been adopted in MARPOL Annex VI, although PM emissions became indirectly regulated by the adoption of Regulation 14 [73].

  16. 16.

    The maximum combustion temperature occurs under slightly rich conditions, e.g., approximately Φ = 1.05. This is due to that the heat release from the combustion process and the heat capacity of the formed combustion products (Nproducts * Cp, products) both decrease for an equivalence ratio greater than one (Φ > 1), while between Φ = 1 and Φ (Tmax), the heat capacity of the combustion products decreases more rapidly than the heat release from the combustion (∆Hc). Hence, the combustion temperature increases. However, beyond Φ (Tmax), the heat capacity of the products starts to decreases slower than ∆Hc whereby the combustion temperature starts to decrease. Therefore, the highest combustion temperature occurs at approximately Φ = 1.05 [89].

  17. 17.

    Dir. 2008/50/EC Preamble at (2) reads as follows: “In order to protect human health and the environment as a whole, it is particularly important to combat emissions of pollutants at source and to identify and implement the most effective emission reduction measures at local, national and Community level. Therefore, emissions of harmful air pollutants should be avoided, prevented or reduced and appropriate objectives set for ambient air quality taking into account relevant World Health Organisation standards, guidelines and programmes.”.

  18. 18.

    For further information, see Dir. 2001/81/EC Art. 1, Art. 2(a) and Art. 11.

  19. 19.

    The NOx emissions for inland waterway vessels are regulated via Dir. 97/68/EC, which was amended by Dir. 2004/26/EC and later amended (testing and approval) by Dir. 2010/26/EU. The specific dates and emission limits can be found in Dir. 2004/26/EC Art. 1(6.)(d) and Annex I(4.)(b).

  20. 20.

    For steady-state conditions, the Euro VI limit is 0.4 g NOx per kWh, whereas at transient conditions, the limit is 0.46 g/kWh. For further information on the Euro VI emission limits, including NH3, see Com. Reg. (EU) No 582/2011 Annex xV. I.

  21. 21.

    The NOx tax was established in 2006 by the Norwegian parliament [117] as a consequence of Norway signing the Gothenburg Protocol and agreeing to reduce NOx emissions [118].

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Shipping and Marine Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Kent Salo, Maria Zetterdahl, Hannes Johnson, Cecilia Gabrielii & Selma Brynolf

  2. Researcher, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Erik Svensson

  3. Volvo Group Trucks Technology, AB Volvo, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Mathias Magnusson

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  1. Kent Salo
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  2. Maria Zetterdahl
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  3. Hannes Johnson
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  7. Selma Brynolf
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Correspondence to Kent Salo .

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  1. Shipping and Marine Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden

    Karin Andersson

  2. Shipping and Marine Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden

    Selma Brynolf

  3. Shipping and Marine Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden

    J. Fredrik Lindgren

  4. Shipping and Marine Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden

    Magda Wilewska-Bien

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Salo, K. et al. (2016). Emissions to the Air . In: Andersson, K., Brynolf, S., Lindgren, J., Wilewska-Bien, M. (eds) Shipping and the Environment . Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-49045-7_5

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