Abstract
Agriculture was the dominant economic activity in ancient China, and well-developed agricultural techniques and a complete system of management became the outstanding characteristics of the rural economy in those days. The handicraft industry represented an important supplement to the agricultural economy through history. Under strict regulation, the handicraft industry made marked progress over time. Although it brought economic vitality to society, the growth of commerce in ancient China was restricted by policies which gave preferential treatment to agriculture over commerce.
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Notes
- 1.
Tang Qiyu, Chinese Agricultural History Manuscripts (Agricultural Publication, 1965), pp. 21–2.
- 2.
Gansu Provincial Museum, “Brief Report on Discoveries of Three Han Tombs in Wu Wei Mo Zui Zi,” Relics, 1972, Vol. 12.
- 3.
Huang Zhanyue, “Two Recently Excavated Iron Tools from the Warring State Period,” Acta Archaeologica Sinica, Vol. 3, 1957.
- 4.
Records of the Grand Historian: Treatise on Equalization (Shiji: Pinghuai Shi): “Over seventy years have passed since the Hanxing Period and it is now dozens of years since His Majesty came to the throne. The country enjoys peace and stability. All the people lead happy and contented lives unless there is a drought or a flood. The central and local governments have surplus riches and the quantity of grains is so abundant that some have to be placed outside the granaries where they become rotten and inedible. Groups of horses gather in the lanes in between fields. People visit one another on horseback.”
- 5.
Records of the Grand Historian: Biographies of Usurers (Shiji: Houzhi Liezhuan): “Qingyao is between the State of Chu and the State of Han. People cannot cultivate the land. Thousands and thousands of dan of rice was needed.” History of the Han Dynasty: Annals of the Emperor Gaozu (Hanshu: Gaodi Ji): “In June of the second year of the Emperor’s reign a great famine occurred in the Guanzhong Plain. Thousands and thousands of qian of money was needed.”
- 6.
The literal English translation of the title of this volume is perhaps misleading. It is largely concerned with harmony and measurements.
- 7.
Also given the regnal year Shengjue Yuannian.
- 8.
Also given the regnal year Ganlu Ernian.
- 9.
Jiangnan literally means “south of the Yangtze River.”
- 10.
A notable Tang Dynasty linguist from Shaanxi who wrote commentaries on works such as the Records of the Grand Historian and the History of the Han Dynasty.
- 11.
Fu Zhufu, The Economic History of Chinese Feudal Society (People’s Publishing House Ltd., 1982), Vol. 2, p. 25.
- 12.
Record of Rarities or Exotic Things: a collection of writings by Yang Fu concerning oddities, important facts, and cultures of the regions bordering China. It was written during the time of the Han and Tan Dynasties, but later edited by proceeding generations. There are no known existing copies of the unedited original version. According to references in other books, this book recorded that in Jiaozhi, crops mature twice a year in summer and winter.
The Beginning of Learning (Chuxueji) cited in Volume 27 of Yang Fu’s Record of Rarities or Exotic Things states: “Before winter rice was harvested and farmers planted the fields again.” The Rural Records of the Taiping Period (Taiping Yulan), quoted in Volume 839 of the same work states: “Then in the summer time they planted and harvested again.”
- 13.
Guangdong Province Relics Administration Committee, “Brief Report on Excavating a Han Tomb in Jiaonang Shidong, Foshan, Guangdong,” Archaeology, Vol. 9, 1964.
- 14.
Cao Guang, The Economic History of Chinese Agriculture (Chinese Social Science Publication Ltd., 1989), p. 440.
- 15.
Tongdian by Du You is a Chinese institutional history and encyclopedia text. It covers the panoply of topics from high antiquity to the year 756 AD, whereas a quarter of the book focuses on the Tang Dynasty.
- 16.
Fu Zhufu, The Economic History of Chinese Feudal Society (People’s Publishing House Ltd., 1986), Vol. 4, pp. 227–35.
- 17.
Fu Zhufu, The Economic History of Chinese Feudal Society (People’s Publishing House Ltd, 1989), Vol. 5, pp. 201–76.
- 18.
See Chap. 3 for further details.
- 19.
Wang Yuhu, Bibliography of Chinese Agricultural Works (Agriculture Publication Ltd, 1964), pp. 1–2, 303–22, and 346–7.
- 20.
In Chinese Nong Jia Zhe Liu, literally translated to refer to a thought school advocating peasant utopian communism and egalitarianism.
- 21.
Xia Weiying, Annotations to the Four Agriculture Chapter of Lüshi Chunqiu (Agriculture Publication Ltd., 1979), p. 2.
- 22.
Chinese Agricultural History, Chinese Agricultural Academy and Office of Chinese Agricultural Heritage of Nanjing Agricultural Academy (Science Publication Ltd., 1959), Vol. 1, p. 77–102.
- 23.
Mou Zhongjian, Studies on Thoughts of Lüshi Chunqiu and Huai Nan Zi (Qilu Book Publication, 1987), pp. 30–1.
- 24.
Book of Sui, also called “Monthly Order for Four Professions.”
- 25.
Principle Techniques for the Welfare of the People is the most completely preserved of the ancient Chinese agricultural texts and was written by the Northern Wei Dynasty official Jia Sixie. The book is believed to have been completed in 544 AD. The text of the book is divided into ten volumes and 92 chapters and records 1,500-year-old Chinese agronomy, horticulture, afforestation, sericulture, animal husbandry, veterinary medicine, breeding, brewing, cooking, storage, as well as remedies for barren land. Since the publication of the book, historical Chinese governments have long attached great importance to it.
- 26.
Miao Qiyu, Annotation to Qi Min Yao Shu (Agriculture Publication Ltd, 1982).
- 27.
Tianye Yuanzhizhu, Review on Ancient Chinese Agriculture, trans. Peng Shijian, and Lin Guangxin (Agriculture Publication, 1992), p. 15.
- 28.
Originally published in Archaeology, Vol. 3, (1963), later collected in Agriculture Book-Agricultural History Analects (March 1979).
- 29.
Originally published in Library, Vol 4, 1962.
- 30.
Agricultural publication Ltd., 1985.
- 31.
Wu Hui, Research on Grain Production Rate in Chinese Dynasties (Agriculture Publication Ltd., 1985), p. 111.
- 32.
Also known by the regnal year Jiang Wu Liunian.
- 33.
Zhao Lisheng, History on Chinese Land Policies (Qilu Book Ltd., 1984); Cheng Shoushi and Lin Ganquan, Manuscripts on Chinese Ancient Land Relations (Shanghai People’s Publication, 1984); History on Chinese Feudal Land Policies (Chinese Social Science Publication Ltd, 1990); Li Shan, The History on Land Nationalization in Ancient China (Yunnan People’s Publication, 1997).
- 34.
By this period, 50 g of gold was equivalent to 1000 qian.
- 35.
Also known by the regnal year Jiang Zhong Wunian.
- 36.
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiuzhang Shuanshu) “Business Application, in the Han Dynasty”: People have different tasks to fulfill in the winter and summer so the two seasons have different lengths of day and night.
- 37.
Shandong Museum and Archaeology Institute of Shandong, Collection of Shandong Portraits in Han Dynasty (Qilu Books Ltd, 1982), picture 341.
- 38.
As above, picture 181.
- 39.
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (Jiuzhang Shuanshu), “Even Transportation, in the Han Dynasty”: This reflects how the organization and the management of government transportation were planned strictly and in detail. These were strictly executed.
- 40.
Also known by the regnal year Yuanshou Sinian.
- 41.
Also known by the regnal year Yuanding Sinian.
- 42.
Also known by the regnal year Wang Mang Dihuang Ernian.
- 43.
Fu Zhufu, The Economic History of Chinese Feudal Society (People’s Publishing House Ltd., 1982), Vol. 2, pp. 400–1.
- 44.
Consisting of 100 volumes of records and compiled by Wang Pu, this work was presented to Emperor Taizu of Song in 961 AD.
- 45.
Ascribed to Li Jinde and written c. 1635.
Bibliography
Chinese Agricultural History, Chinese Agricultural Academy and Office of Chinese Agricultural Heritage of Nanjing Agricultural Academy, Vol. 1, Science Publication ltd, 1959; Volume 2, Science Publication Ltd, 1984.
Fu Zhufu. The economic history of Chinese Feudal society. People’s Publishing House Ltd., Vol. 1, 1981; Vol. 2, 1982; Vol. 3, 1984; Vol. 4, 1986; Vol. 5, 1989.
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Zhang, Q. (2015). Agriculture, Handicraft, and Commerce in Ancient China. In: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. China Academic Library. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46482-3_7
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