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Wrongful Convictions in China pp 89–143Cite as

The Different Roots of Wrongful Convictions

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Abstract

Over the last few decades, the discovery of wrongful convictions has increasingly “raised unprecedented concerns about the reliability of the criminal process”. Wrongful convictions are one of the greatest problems facing China’s justice system. What further causes lie behind such convictions in China?

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Kent Roach (2010), Wrongful Convictions: Adversarial and Inquisitorial Themes, N.C. J. INT’L L. & COM. REG, XXXV: 388.

  2. 2.

    “The Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China [2012 Revision] (full-text)” [zhonghua renmin gonghe guo xingshi susong fa erling yi’er nian xiuzheng quanwen], CHINA (18 March 2012), available at: http://www.china.com.cn/policy/txt/2012-03/18/content_24922812_2.htm.

  3. 3.

    In general, the police are in charge of investigation, albeit with some exceptions. Under the 2012 CPL, the People’s Procuratorates are also responsible for investigation into the cases of occupational crimes committed by public officials, such as embezzlement, bribery, malfeasance and so on. Specifically, such cases are investigated by the internal investigation bureaus of the People’s Procuratorates.

  4. 4.

    MA Xiwu (1956), On Several Problems in Adjudication Work at the Present Time, Political-Legal Research [Zhengfa Yanjiu], 1:3.

  5. 5.

    Herbert L. Packer (1964), Two Models of the Criminal Process, U. PA. L. REv. 113(1):11.

  6. 6.

    “The Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China”, available at: http://wenku.baidu.com/view/6a30c23d87c24028915fc3b9.html.

  7. 7.

    “The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China”, available at: http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html.

  8. 8.

    “The Constitution of the People’s Republic of China”, available at: http://en.people.cn/constitution/constitution.html.

  9. 9.

    Herbert L. Packer (1964), Two Models of the Criminal Process, U. PA. L. Rev. 113(1): 13.

  10. 10.

    Sida Liu and Terence C. Halliday (2009), Recursivity in Legal Change: Lawyers and Reforms of China's Criminal Procedure Law, Law and Social Inquiry, 34(4): 922.

  11. 11.

    Stanley Lubman (2013), What China’s Wrongful Convictions Mean for Legal Reform, available at: http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2013/07/17/wrongful-convictions-and-chinas-legal-reform-push/.

  12. 12.

    See Wan Yi & Shi Qingzheng, Empirical Study of the Appraisal System in the Procuratorates [Jianchayuan jixiao kaohe shizheng yanjiu], 1 ORIENTAL LAW [Dongfang faxue] 2009, p. 28.

  13. 13.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  14. 14.

    Jiang Lijun, The Discussion of the Appraisal System in the Public Security Organs [Lun woguo gong’an jiguan de jixiao pinggu jizhi], 6 Journal of Zhejiang Police College [Gong’an Xuekan] 2002, p. 80.

  15. 15.

    See Wan Yi & Shi Qingzheng, Wan Yi & Shi Qingzheng, Empirical Study of the Appraisal System in the Procuratorates [Jianchayuan jixiao kaohe shizheng yanjiu], 1 ORIENTAL LAW [Dongfang faxue] 2009, pp. 34–35.

  16. 16.

    See Liaoning Provincial Police, Liaoning Provincial Police’s 2006 Provisions on Examination and Appraisal of Law-Enforcement Quality [Liaoning sheng gong’an jiguan zhifa zhiliang kaohe pingyi guiding], DOCIN [douding wang] (12 April 2011), available at: http://www.docin.com/p-177446050.html&endPro=true.

  17. 17.

    ZHAO Yaotong, Did that “Murder Cases Must Be Broken” Really Lead to Wrongful Convictions? [zhenshi ‘ming’an bipo’ daozhi yuanjia cuo’an ma?], South Reviews [nanfeng chuang] (21 November 2014), available at: http://www.nfcmag.com/article/5127.html.

  18. 18.

    For example, see The Beijing Police Annual Report Was Released to Show that the Detection Rate of Murder Cases Rose up to 99.16 % [Beijing jingfang niandu gongzuo baogao chulu ming’an po’an lvda baifen zhi jiushi jiudian yiliu], China Net [zhongguo wang] (24 January 2014), available at: http://www.china.com.cn/news/2014-01/24/content_31289621.htm; also see PAN Gaofeng, The Shanghai Detection Rate of Murder Cases Being Nearly 99 % in the Last Year [qunian shanghai ming’an po’an lvjin baifen zhi jiushi jiu], Dayang Net [dayang wang] (12 January 2014), available at: http://roll.sohu.com/20140112/n393370187.shtml.

  19. 19.

    See CHEN Wei, During Eight Years When the Nianbin Case Occurred, Tragies Still Continuing [nianbing an zhe banian: beiju rengzai jixu], China News Weekly [zhongguo xinwen zhoukan] (4 September 2014), available at: http://news.inewsweek.cn/detail-862.html.

  20. 20.

    See Pitman Potter (1999), The Chinese Legal System: Continuing Commitment to the Primacy of State Power, The Chinese Quarterly, 159: 681.

  21. 21.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  22. 22.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  23. 23.

    Amnesty International, People’s Republic of China: Law Reform and Human Rights 13 (1997); Guo Zhizhong, The Legal Analysis of Forced Confession through Torture and Ill Treatment [Xingsun bigong de falv fenxi], POLICING STUD. [Gong’an Yanjiu], 4 (2007), 64.

  24. 24.

    See Liu Changsong, “Wrongful Convictions in Xiaoshan” Question the Mechanism for the Accountability of Trial Committees [xiaoshan cuo’an kaowen shenwei hui wenze jizhi], Beijing News [xinjing bao], (4 July 2013), available at: http://epaper.bjnews.com.cn/html/2013-07/04/content_445082.htm?div=-1.

  25. 25.

    See Zhang Yue & Qi Shuxin, The Policeman Zhang Jinbo’s Unjust Conviction in Ten Years [minjing zhang jinbo de shinian yuanyu], China Youth Daily [zhongguo qingnian bao] (9 February 2007).

  26. 26.

    See SHE Xianglin Being Detained 3995 Days, Who Were Estimated to Obtain RMB 220,000 as State Compensation [she xianglin bei jiya sanjiu jiuwu tian yuji kehuo ershi erwan guojia peichang], China Net [zhonghua wang] (8 April 2005), available at: http://news.china.com/zh_cn/social/1007/20050408/12226409.html.

  27. 27.

    Wen Yuanzhu, Tracking Misjudged Case Zhao Zuohai: The Defence Counsel that the Court Designated for Zhao Zuohai Being A Trainee Then [zhao zuohai yuan’an zhuizong: dangnian fayuan zhiding bianhu lvshi shi shixi sheng], Dayang Net—Guangzhou Daily [dayang wang guanzhou ribao] (15 May 2010), available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2010-05-15/040320276147.shtml.

  28. 28.

    Ye Zhusheng, The Summary of Chinese Wrongful Convictions: None of Their Correction Being Initiated by Judicial Bodies [pandian ershi qi zhongguo shi yuan’an: wu yiqi shi you sifa jiguan zhudong xiyuan], IFNG News (13 May 2013), available at: http://news.ifeng.com/shendu/nfc/detail_2013_05/13/25225167_0.shtml.

  29. 29.

    See Dark Find from Chongqing’s “Beat Black” Campaign, available at: http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2012/07/dark-find-from-chongqings-beat-black-campaign/.

  30. 30.

    See How to Correct Chinese Wrongful Convictions [zhongguo shi yuan’an ruhe jiucuo], Sohu News [souhu xinwen], (25 June 2013), Vol. 1170, available at: http://news.sohu.com/s2013/dianji-1170/.

  31. 31.

    Ibid.

  32. 32.

    See Ruan Yang, Fenghuang Knows: Where PLCs are going to? [fenghuang zhidao: zhengfa wei xiang hechu qu], (23 November 2013), available at: http://www.360doc.com/content/13/1123/17/535749_331574130.shtml.

  33. 33.

    See Righting Wrongful Convictions in China, Globaltimes (29 December 2014), available at: http://www.globaltimes.cn/daily-specials/wrongful-convictions-China/index.html.

  34. 34.

    See The Supreme People’s Court, The Supreme People’s Court’s Directive on Directive on Establishing and Improving Working Mechanisms for Preventing Wrongful Convictions in Criminal Cases [zuigao renmin fayuan guanyu jianli jianquan fangfan xingshi yuanjia cuoan gongzuo jiazhi de yijian], COURT (31 July 2014), available at: http://www.court.gov.cn/shenpan-xiangqing-6619.html.

  35. 35.

    Mike McConville et al. (2011), Criminal Justice in China, Edward Elgar: 379.

  36. 36.

    Mooney (2010), The ‘Hotpot’ Culture that Gives Chongqing Its Murky Image, South China Morning Post, 11 April.

  37. 37.

    Mike McConville et al. (2011), Criminal Justice in China, Edward Elgar: 379.

  38. 38.

    Ma Erli, The Evil Fruit of Powers Interfering with the Judiciary [Quanli ganyu sifa de er zhiguo], Justice Net [zhengyi wang] (13 May 2010), available at: http://www.jcrb.com/pinglun/jrkd/201005/t20100513_355661.html.

  39. 39.

    See Wang Gang, Law Enforcers Who Decides the Fate of SHE Xianglin [jueding she xianglin mingyun de zhifa zhe], 15 China News Weekly [zhongguo xinwen zhoukan] (22 April 2005), p. 21, available at: http://doc.qkzz.net/article/d12069de-c472-42e2-a02e-bce85080fab4.htm.

  40. 40.

    See Ruan Yang, Fenghuang Knows: Where PLCs Are Going to? [fenghuang zhidao: zhengfa wei xiang hechu qu], (23 November 2013), available at: http://www.360doc.com/content/13/1123/17/535749_331574130.shtml.

  41. 41.

    Huang Dansen & Shen Zongling eds., Western Theories on Human Rights [Xifang Renquan Xueshuo], 1995, Vol. 1, 482.

  42. 42.

    See Both the SPC and SPP Require Strict Prevention and Correction of Wrongful Convictions by Law, People’s Daily [lianggao baogao yaoqiu yanfang bing yifa jiuzheng yuanjia cuoan], People’s Daily [renmin ribao] (11 March, 2014), available at: http://news.china.com.cn/2014lianghui/2014-03/11/content_31743016.htm.

  43. 43.

    Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Human Rights Awareness and Ideas in Chinese History’, in China’s Human Rights, available at: http://www.humanrights.cn/zt/scholarsviews/200512005119103847.htm.

  44. 44.

    See Jerome Bourgon, Uncivil Dialogue: Law and Custom did not Merge into Civil Law under the Qing, Late Imperial China, Volume 23, No 1 (2002) at pp. 50–90.

  45. 45.

    Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, ‘Human Rights Awareness and Ideas in Chinese History’, in China’s Human Rights, available at: http://www.humanrights.cn/zt/scholarsviews/200512005119103847.htm.

  46. 46.

    Kuo-Wei Lin, Kai-Ping Huang, Moral judgment and ethical leadership in Chinese management: the role of Confucianism and collectivism, 1 Quality & Quantity 2014, 37–47.

  47. 47.

    Randall Peerenboom, Rights, Interests, and the Interests in Rights in China, 31 STAN. J.INT'L L. 359, 362 (1995).

  48. 48.

    See Building harmonious society crucial for China's progress: Hu, People's Daily (27 June 2005), available at: http://en.people.cn/200506/27/eng20050627_192495.html.

  49. 49.

    See Human rights in China, available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_China#cite_note-182.

  50. 50.

    See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment) [Effective], available at: http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=169667&lib=law.

  51. 51.

    See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment) [Effective], available at: http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=169667&lib=law.

  52. 52.

    See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment) [Effective], available at: http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=169667&lib=law.

  53. 53.

    Criminal Procedure Law of the PRC 2012, available at: http://3y.uu456.com/bp_455tu2efgi2i4cx3qim1_5.html.

  54. 54.

    See HE Jiahong, Looking at that China Has Established the System of the Right to Silence from the Perspective of the New Criminal Procedure Law [cong xin xingsu fa kan zhongguo yi queli chenmo quan zhidu], People’s Court Newspaper [renmin fayuan bao] (1 August 2012), available at: http://www.chinacourt.org/article/detail/2012/08/id/538703.shtml.

  55. 55.

    See Revising the Criminal Procedure Law: What’s the Meaning of “No Self-criminalization” [xingsu fa xiugai bude qiangpo zizheng youhe yiyi], Think’ Again [feichang shi] Issue No. 315 (19 July 2012), available at: http://news.cntv.cn/special/thinkagain/selfincrimination/.

  56. 56.

    See PENG Xiancai & SHI Jiasan, The Ins and Outs of Wrongful Conviction Cases [du peiwu cuoan de qianqian houhou], People’s Daily [renmin wang] (3 November 2000), available at: http://view.news.qq.com/a/20100511/000012.htm; also see The Wrongful Death Penalty Case of A Policeman DU Peiwu from Yunnan Province [Yunnan jingcha du peiwu sixing yuan’an], Skilled Criminal Defence Lawyer Net of Jinan City [jinan zhuanye xingshi bianhu lvshi wang], available at: http://www.188mb.com/User/loulaiguang/NewsShow.asp?id=257728.

  57. 57.

    See The ZHANG Jinzhu Case: “Public Opinions Killing People” Being A False Proposition [zhang jinzhu an minyi sharen shige jia mingti], Red Net-Xiaoxiang Morning News [hongwang xiaoxiang chenbao] (17 December 2008), available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-12-17/183216867420.shtml.

  58. 58.

    See ZHANG Tao, Reviewing the Wrongful Conviction Case of SHE Xianglin: The Dangers of Coerced Confessions Extorted through Torture and Confession under Directions or by Inducement, South Weekend [nanfang zhoumo] [she xianglin yuan’an jiantao xingxun bugong yu zhigong you’gong de weihai], available at: http://www.jiaodong.net/2005/4/230008.htm.

  59. 59.

    For example, written petition documents are most commonly signed by numerous individuals and addressed to higher authorities. See Petition, available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petition.

  60. 60.

    See LI Junde, What ‘the Document of Death Sentence Guarantee’ to Ensure: the New Version of ‘the ZHAO Zuohai case’ Questioning How to Maintain Stability [sixing baozheng shu baozheng le shenme henan xinban zhao zuohai an kaowen weiwen zhihuo], China Comment (Internal Version) [banyue tan neibu ban], 2012(6), available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2012-06/06/c_123242230_2.htm.

  61. 61.

    See LI Junde, What ‘the Document of Death Sentence Guarantee’ to Ensure: the New Version of ‘the ZHAO Zuohai case’ Questioning How to Maintain Stability [sixing baozheng shu baozheng le shenme henan xinban zhao zuohai an kaowen weiwen zhihuo], China Comment (Internal Version) [banyue tan neibu ban], 2012(6), available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2012-06/06/c_123242230_2.htm.

  62. 62.

    See The ZHANG Jinzhu Case: “Public Opinions Killing People” Being A False Proposition [zhang jinzhu an minyi sharen shige jia mingti], Red Net-Xiaoxiang Morning News [hongwang xiaoxiang chenbao] (17 December 2008), available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-12-17/183216867420.shtml.

  63. 63.

    E.g. see Huang Linbin, ‘The Tang Hui Case: The Dispossessed Ought Also Obey the Law to the Full Extent’ [tanghui an ruozhe ye yingshi buzhe bukou de shoufa zhe] (1 May 2013), available at: http://opinion.china.com.cn/opinion_72_69572.html; also see Li Erliang, ‘The Xia Junfeng Case: Justice Cannot Be Obtained through Emotional Outbursts’ [xia junfeng an zhengyi buneng cong qingxu hua faxie zhong dedao] (26 September 2013), available at: http://star.news.sohu.com/20130926/n387271365.shtml.

  64. 64.

    See Public Opinion, Criminal Justice, and Incipient Popular Liberalism in China, available at: https://www.thechinastory.org/2014/03/public-opinion-criminal-justice-and-incipient-popular-liberalism-in-china/.

  65. 65.

    Wang Hai, ‘Compassion is a Virtue, but Law is the Bottom Line’ [tongqing shi meide dan falv shi dixian] (1 October 2013), available at: http://pinglun.youth.cn/wztt/201310/t20131001_3964935.htm.

  66. 66.

    See Benjamin Liebman & Tim Wu, ‘China’s Network Justice’, Chicago Journal of International Law, vol. 8, no. 1 (2005): 257–321.

  67. 67.

    See ZHANG Haibin, Why “the Leader of A Mafia-style Organization” LIU Yong Should Not Be Sentenced to Death [hei laoda liuyong weiihe bu gaisha], China Youth Daily [zhongguo qingnian bao] (30 August 2003), available at: http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper447/10044/921133.html.

  68. 68.

    See ZHANG Haibin, Why “the Leader of A Mafia-style Organization” LIU Yong Should Not Be Sentenced to Death [hei laoda liuyong weiihe bu gaisha], China Youth Daily [zhongguo qingnian bao] (30 August 2003), available at: http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper447/10044/921133.html.

  69. 69.

    LI Junde, The Pingdingshan Court of Henan Province Promised the Victim’s Family to Sentence the Accused to Death for Preventing them from Petitions [henan pingdingshan fayuan weizu beihairen qinshu shangfang chengnuo pan sixing], China Economics Net [zhongguo jingji wang] (7 June 2012), available at: http://www.dzwww.com/xinwen/guoneixinwen/201206/t20120607_7194048.htm.

  70. 70.

    LI Junde, The Pingdingshan Court of Henan Province Promised the Victim’s Family to Sentence the Accused to Death for Preventing them from Petitions [henan pingdingshan fayuan weizu beihairen qinshu shangfang chengnuo pan sixing], China Economics Net [zhongguo jingji wang] (7 June 2012), available at: http://www.dzwww.com/xinwen/guoneixinwen/201206/t20120607_7194048.htm.

  71. 71.

    See Li Guangming, ‘A Peasant from Anhui Province Who Was Wrongful Convicted of Murder and Raping a Dead Body Has Been Detained for Eight Years Without Obtaining Any Compensation’ [anhui nongmin beiyuan sharen jianshi guanya banian wei huode renhe peichang], Legal Daily [fazhi ribao] (6 November 2006), available at: http://news.sohu.com/20061106/n246216370.shtml; also see Chen Lei, ‘Multiple ‘Truths’ in A Case of Murder and Rape’ [yiqi jiansha an de ruogan zhenxiang], Southern People Weekly [nanfang renwu zhoukan] (18 November 2006), available at: http://news.qq.com/a/20071107/003554.htm (last consulted on 7 November 2007).

  72. 72.

    See WANG Guoshu, A Socialism Criminal Procedure Law Code [yibu shehui zhuyi de xingshi susong fadian], An Academic Journal of Beijing University (the Version of Social Sciences) [Beijing daxue xuebao zhexue shehui kexue ban], 1979(4).

  73. 73.

    Articles 62–66 of the 1979 CPL, The Criminal Procedure Law of the PRC adopted in 1979 (zhonghua renmin gonghe guo xingshi susong fa yijiu qijiu nianban), available at: http://www.360doc.com/content/12/0313/18/7499155_194067283.shtml.

  74. 74.

    Article 12 of the 1996 CPL stated that “[N]o person shall be found guilty without being judged as such by a People’s Court according to the law.” Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China, available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/pc/11_5/2012-01/19/content_1686561.htm.

  75. 75.

    Article 162(3) of the 1996 CPL, “The Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China”, available at: http://wenku.baidu.com/view/6a30c23d87c24028915fc3b9.html

    Among provisions in the Law of 2012, Article 49 states that ‘[I]n public prosecution cases, the burden of proving the defendant guilty accrues to the prosecution’.

  76. 76.

    See GU Peidong, Examination and Demonstration of China’s Lawyer System [zhongguo lvshi zhidu de lilun jianshi yu shizheng], Chinese Lawyers [zhongguo lvshi], 1999(11), p. 15.

  77. 77.

    See WANG Shengyu, A Preliminary Discussion of Chinese Lawyers’ Nature and Their Legal Status [shilun woguo lvshi de xingzhi ji falv diwei], available at: http://www.law-lib.com/lw/lw_view.asp?no=11931.

  78. 78.

    They are “to present, according to the facts and law, materials and opinions proving the innocence of the defendant, the pettiness of his crime and the need for a mitigated punishment or exemption from criminal responsibility, thus safeguarding the lawful rights and interests of the defendant”. See Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China (1979) [zhonghua renmin gonghe guo xingshi susong fa yijiu qijiu nianban], available at: http://www.360doc.com/content/12/0313/18/7499155_194067283.shtml.

  79. 79.

    See WANG Shengyu, A Preliminary Discussion of Chinese Lawyers’ Nature and Their Legal Status [shilun woguo lvshi de xingzhi ji falv diwei], available at: http://www.law-lib.com/lw/lw_view.asp?no=11931.

  80. 80.

    Article 35 of the 1996 CPL, available at: http://www.lawinfochina.com/display.aspx?id=347&lib=law&SearchKeyword=&SearchCKeyword=; and Article 35 of the 2012 CPL, available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  81. 81.

    Yi Sheng, A Promise Unfulfilled: The Impact of China's 1996 Criminal-Procedure Reform on China's Criminal Defense Lawyers' Role at the Pre-trial Stage (Part 2), 5 PERSP. 1 (2004).

  82. 82.

    See “The Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China”, PERMANENT MISSION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA TO THEUNITED NATIONS AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN VIENNA, available at: available at: http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cgvienna/eng/dbtyw/jdwt/crimelaw/t209043.htm.

    Article 306 provides that ‘If, in criminal proceedings, a defender or legal agent destroys or forges evidence, helps any of the parties destroy or forge evidence, or coerces the witness or induces him into changing his testimony in defiance of the facts or give false testimony, he shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention; if the circumstances are serious, he shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not less than three years but not more than seven years. Where a witness's testimony or other evidence provided, shown or quoted by a defender or legal agent is inconsistent with the facts but is not forged intentionally, it shall not be regarded as forgery of evidence.’

  83. 83.

    “The Criminal Procedure Law of the People’s Republic of China”, available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  84. 84.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011); See Chen Xingliang, Defending the Defense Right: Defense Right from the Perspective of Criminal Law [Wei Bianhu Quan Bianhu, Xingshifa Shiye Zhong De Bianhu Quan], LEGAL SCI. [ Faxue], 2004 (1), pp. 15–17.

  85. 85.

    ALL CHINA LAWYERS ASSOCIATION, WORK REPORT OF THE ALL CHINA LAWYERS ASSOCIATION TO UPHOLD LAWYERS' RIGHTS [Zhonghua quanguo lvshi xiehui, quanguo lvxie weiquan gongzuo baogao] 2 (2002); see CHEN Ruihua, Has the Law Community Been Formed? (Part I)-Analysis Based on the Defense Lawyer's Investigatory Right [Falv zhiye gongtongti xingshicheng le ma: yi bianhu lvshi diaochaquan wei qieru de fenxi], JUST. CHINA [Zhongguo sifa], 2008(3), p. 19.

  86. 86.

    See Injustice or Belated Justice, China Daily (11 May 2010), p. 8, available at: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2010-05/11/content_9832295.htm.

  87. 87.

    See The Beginning and Ends of the Wrongful Conviction in the DU Peiwu Case [du peiwu cuo’an de qianqian houhou], People’s Net [renmin wang], available at: http://view.news.qq.com/a/20100511/000012.htm.

  88. 88.

    See The Supreme People’s Procuratorate Research Center for Procuratorial Theories, et al. [zuigao renmin jiancha yuan jiancha lilun yanjiu suo deng], eds., Unlawfully Extended Custody and Safeguarding Human Rights [chaoqi jiya yu baozhang renquan], China Procuratorate Press [zhongguo jiancha chuban she] (Beijing), 2004, p. 95.

  89. 89.

    Article 124 of the 1996 CPL states that: ‘The time limit for holding a criminal suspect in custody during investigation after arrest shall not exceed two months. If the case is complex and cannot be concluded within the time limit, an extension of one month may be allowed with the approval of the People's Procuratorate at the next higher level.’ Article 126 of the 1996 CPL stipulates that ‘With respect to the following cases, if investigation cannot be concluded within the time limit specified in Article 124 of the 1996 CPL, an extension of two months may be allowed upon approval or decision by the People's Procuratorate of a province. Article 127 of the 1996 CPL further states: ‘If in the case of a criminal suspect who may be sentenced to fixed- term imprisonment of ten years at least, investigation of the case can still not be concluded upon expiration of the extended time limit as provided in Article 126 of the 1996 CPL, another extension of two months may be allowed.’ See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China, available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/pc/11_5/2012-01/19/content_1686561.htm; also see Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment), available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  90. 90.

    Article 138 of the 1996 CPL states that the ‘People's Procuratorate shall make a decision within one month on a case that a public security organ has transferred to it with a recommendation to initiate a prosecution; an extension of a half month may be allowed for major or complex cases….’ Article 168 of the 1996 CPL states that the ‘A People’s Court shall pronounce judgment on a case of public prosecution within one month or, one and a half months at the latest, after accepting it. Under one of the situations provided in Article 126 of this Law, the period may be extended by one more month upon approval or decision by the Higher People's Court of a province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central Government’. ‘If jurisdiction of a People's Court over a case is altered, the time limit for handling the case shall be calculated from the date on which another People's Court receives the case after the alteration.’ ‘As to a case for which a People's Procuratorate has to conduct supplementary investigation, the People's Court shall start to calculate anew the time lime for handling the case after the supplementary investigation has been completed and the case has been transferred to it.’ See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China, available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/pc/11_5/2012-01/19/content_1686561.htm; also see Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment), available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  91. 91.

    Article 168 of the 1996 CPL stated that ‘A People's Court shall pronounce judgment on a case of public prosecution within one month or, one and a half months at the latest, after accepting it. Under one of the situations provided in Article 126 of this Law, the period may be extended by one more month upon approval or decision by the Higher People's Court of a province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central Government’. ‘If jurisdiction of a People's Court over a case is altered, the time limit for handling the case shall be calculated from the date on which another People's Court receives the case after the alteration’. ‘As to a case for which a People's Procuratorate has to conduct supplementary investigation, the People's Court shall start to calculate anew the time lime for handling the case after the supplementary investigation has been completed and the case has been transferred to it’. See Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China, available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/pc/11_5/2012-01/19/content_1686561.htm; Article 202 of the 2012 CPL states that ‘Article 202 A people’s court shall announce a sentence for a case of public prosecution within two months, or three months at the latest, after accepting the case. For a case with the possibility of a death penalty or a case with an incidental civil action or under any of the circumstances as set forth in Article 156 of this Law, the period of trial may be extended for three months with the approval of the people’s court at the next higher level; and, if more extension is needed under special circumstances, the extension shall be reported to the Supreme People’s Court for approval’. ‘Where the jurisdiction of a people’s court over a case is changed, the period of trial of the case shall be counted from the day when the people’s court having jurisdiction receives the case after the change’. ‘For a case under supplementary investigation by a people’s procuratorate, a people’s court shall count anew the period of trial of the case after the supplementary investigation is completed and the case is transferred to the court’. See also Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment), available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  92. 92.

    Article 196 of the 1996 CPL stated that ‘Article 196 After accepting a case of appeal or protest, a People’s Court of second instance shall conclude the trial of the case within one month, or one and a half months at the latest. Under one of the situations provided in Article 126 of this Law, the period may be extended by one month upon the approval or decision by the Higher People's Court of a province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central Government. However, with respect to cases of appeal or protest accepted by the Supreme People's Court, the matter shall be decided by the Supreme People's Court itself’. see Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China, available at: http://www.npc.gov.cn/pc/11_5/2012-01/19/content_1686561.htm; Article 232 of the 2012 CPL states that ‘Article 232 After accepting an appellate case, a people’s court of second instance shall close the trial of the case within two months. For a case with the possibility of a death penalty or a case with an incidental civil action or under any of the circumstances as set forth in Article 156 of this Law, the period of trial may be extended for two months with the approval or decision of the higher people’s court of a province, autonomous region, or municipality directly under the Central Government; and, if more extension is needed under special circumstances, the extension shall be reported to the Supreme People’s Court for approval’. ‘The period for the Supreme People’s Court to try an appellate case shall be decided by the Supreme People’s Court.’, also see Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China (2012 Amendment), available at: http://www.ceolaws.net/html/criminal/Criminal%20Procedure%20Law%20of%20the%20Peoples%20Republic%20of%20.html.

  93. 93.

    See WANG Fuming et al., Sunshine Actions, How Long Is the Journey: A Perspective into Justice Institutions Cleaning up Cases involving Unlawfully Extended Custody [yangguang xingdong luyou duoyuan zhengfa jihuan qingli chaoqi jiya toushi], Procuratorial Daily [jiancha ribao] (November 11, 2003).

  94. 94.

    See Why "the Storm Eye" in Detention Centers Being Unshakable [fengbao yan zhongde kanshou suo weihe leida budong], South Daily [nanfang zhoumo] (9 June 2010), available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2010-06-09/222417639199s.shtml.

  95. 95.

    See The Supreme People’s Procuratorate Research Center for Procuratorial Theories, et al. [zuigao renmin jiancha yuan jiancha lilun yanjiu suo deng], eds., Unlawfully Extended Custody and Safeguarding Human Rights [chaoqi jiya yu baozhang renquan], China Procuratorate Press [zhongguo jiancha chuban she] (Beijing), 2004, p. 72.

  96. 96.

    [zhumadian kanshou suoli beiguan jin sannian yi chaoqi jiya], Great River Net [Dahe Wang] (27 April 2012), available at: http://news.xinhuanet.com/legal/2012-04/27/c_123047990.htm.

  97. 97.

    See Liu Pinxin, ed., Criminal wrongful conviction: factors and strategies [xingshi cuo’an chengyin yu duice], the Legality Publishing House of China [zhongguo fazhi chuban she] (Beijing), 2009, pp. 182–193.

  98. 98.

    See SHEN Deyong, ‘How should we guard against wrongful conviction?’, People’s Court Daily, May 6, 2013.

  99. 99.

    See CHEN Guoqing & WANG Jia, ‘Two Basics’ and the Standard of Proof in Chinese Criminal Procedures [liangge jiben yu woguo xingshi susong de zhengming biaozhun], Legal Daily: Legal Net [fazhi ribao fazhi wang] (9 April 2014), available at: http://www.legaldaily.com.cn/bm/content/2014-04/09/content_5434115.htm?node=20737.

  100. 100.

    See LIU Jinyou, Evidence Law [zhengju fa], China University of Politics and Law Press [zhongguo zhengfa daxue chuban she] (Beijing), 2001, pp. 327–333.

  101. 101.

    See HE Jiahong, Ten Misunderstanding of Criminal Justice in Contemporary China [dangjin woguo xingshi sifa de shida wuqu], Tsinghua Law Review [qinghua faxue], 2014(2), available at: http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_522665f60102vb98.html.

  102. 102.

    Ibid.

  103. 103.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  104. 104.

    See XIU Wei, The First execution in Beijing following the SPC’s Restoration of the Power to Review Death Sentences [Beijing shouming jing zuigao fayuan fuhe sixing fan bei xingxing], Beijing Evening News [Beijing wanbao] (27 June 2007), available at: http://news.qq.com/a/20070627/003230.htm.

  105. 105.

    See In Retrial of the LENG Guoquan Case, Original Sentences Being Changed to Life Imprisonment for Drug Smuggling and Trafficking in the First Instance [leng guoquan shedu an chongshen yishen gaipan wuqi], available at: http://epaper.bjnews.com.cn/html/2011-11/24/content_294863.htm?div=-1.

  106. 106.

    See Wang Huazhong, Lawyer Jailed for Falsification, CHINA DAILY (February 10, 2010), available at: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/usa/2010-02-/10/content-11015852.htm.

  107. 107.

    See XIU Wei, The First execution in Beijing following the SPC’s Restoration of the Power to Review Death Sentences [Beijing shouming jing zuigao fayuan fuhe sixing fan bei xingxing], Beijing Evening News [Beijing wanbao] (27 June 2007), available at: http://news.qq.com/a/20070627/003230.htm.

  108. 108.

    See Case LENG Guoquan Changed to Life Imprisonment for Drug Smuggling and Trafficking in the First-Instance of Its Retrial, available at: http://epaper.bjnews.com.cn/html/2011-11/24/content_294863.htm?div=-1.

  109. 109.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  110. 110.

    CHEN RUIHUAI, BETWEEN PROBLEMS AND PRINCIPLES [Wenti yu zhuyi zhijian], (China Renmin University Press [zhongguo renmin daxue chuban she]) (Beijing), 2008, p. 402; ‘WALKING ON THIN ICE’: CONTROL, INTIMIDATION AND HARASSMENT OF LAWYERS IN CHINA, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, 4 (2008), available at: http://www.hrw.org/reports/zoo8/chinao4o8/chinao4o8web.pdf.

  111. 111.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  112. 112.

    See Austin Ramzy, China's Dark City: Behind Chongqing's Crime Crackdown, TIME (15 March 2010), available at: http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/o,9'71,1969642-2,oo.html.

  113. 113.

    Yu Ping, Glittery Promise vs. Dismal Reality: The Role of a Criminal Lawyer in the People's Republic of China after the 1996 Revision of the Criminal Procedure Law, 35 VAND. J. TRANSNAT'L L. 827, 857 (2002).

  114. 114.

    See CHEN JIANFU, CHINESE LAW: CONTEXT AND TRANSFORMATION 334 (2007); A Promise Unfulfilled: The Impact of China's 1996 Criminal-Procedure Reform on China's Criminal Defense Lawyers' Role at the Pre-trial Stage (Part 2), 5 PERSP. 1 (2004); CHEN Guangzhong, Combining the Punishment of Criminals and the Protection of Human Rights, Combining Relying on Domestic Particularities and Borrowing Western Experiences-Few Thoughts from Participation of the Criminal Procedure Law Reform [Mianchi chengfa zuifan yu baozhang renqan xiang jiehe, lizu guoqing yu jiejian guowai xiang jiheguo], TRIB. POL. SC. & L. [zhengfa lunfan], 1996(6), pp. 29–30.

  115. 115.

    See Official Calls for Protection of Suspects’ Rights, Xinhua (20 November 2006), available at: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/20/content_737426.htm; see also LIN Yi, Chinese Police Chief's Widow Alleges Torture after He Dies in Custody, The Guardian (14 January 2011), available at: http://wrongfulconvictionsblog.org/category/asia/page/4/.

  116. 116.

    See Tortured, Wrongly Imprisoned Man Compensated, China Daily (28 October 2005), available at: http://www.china.org.cn/english/2005/Oct/146896.htm.

  117. 117.

    Li Zhuang: Chinese Defense Lawyer Who Was Found Guilty of Suborning Perjury, Category Archives: Asia, available at: http://wrongfulconvictionsblog.org/category/asia/page/4/.

  118. 118.

    See What Li Zhuang Case Signals for China's Legal Reform, NTD Television (19 December 2012), available at: http://ntdtv.org/en/news/china/china-focus/2012-12-19/what-li-zhuang-case-signals-for-china-s-legal-reform.html; also see TIAN Lei, The Deeper Value of the Li Zhuang Case [Liz huang an de shen ceng jia zhi], S. WIND WINDOW [Nanfeng chuang] (17 January 2010).

  119. 119.

    For example, see SHE Xianglin, available at: http://ntdtv.org/en/news/china/china-focus/2012-12-19/what-li-zhuang-case-signals-for-china-s-legal-reform.html; also see The Public Security Bureau Compensates SHE Xianglin for His Wrongful Imprisonment, Source: Xinhua—Chinese (28 October 2005), available at: http://www.cecc.gov/pages/virtualAcad/index.phpd?showsingle=27834.

  120. 120.

    LI Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  121. 121.

    See Frankie Fook-Lun-Leung, The Re-Emergence of the Legal Profession in the People's Republic of China, 6 N.Y.L. SCH. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 275 (1985); also see Dean G. Rojek, The Criminal Process in the People’s Republic of China, 2 JUST. Q. 117, 143(1985).

  122. 122.

    Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  123. 123.

    See Olivia Yu, Corruption in China's Economic Reform: A Review of Recent Observations and Explanations, 50 CRIME, L. & Soc. CHANGE 161–162 (2008).

  124. 124.

    Sida Liu and Terence C. Halliday, (2009), Recursivity in Legal Change: Lawyers and Reforms of China’s Criminal Procedure Law, Law and Social Inquiry, 34(4): 925.

  125. 125.

    See LAWYERs COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRIMINAL JUSTICE WITH CHINESE CHARACTERISTICS: CHINA'S CRIMINAL PROCESS AND VIOLATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS 38 (1993); also see Li Enshen, The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China, 24 Colum. J. Asian L.130 (2010–2011).

  126. 126.

    Daniel C. Turack, The New Chinese Criminal justice System, 7 CARDOZO J. INT’L & COMP. L.59 (1999).

  127. 127.

    Human Rights Watch (2008), Walking on Thin Ice: Control, Intimidation and Harassment of Lawyers in China, New York: Human Rights Watch, available at: http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/04/28/walking-thin-ice.

  128. 128.

    Ethan Michelson & Sida Liu (2010), What Do Chinese Lawyers Want? Political Values and Legal Practice, The Brookings Institution, 311.

  129. 129.

    Ng Tze-wei, CPPCC Members Urges More Help for Lawyers from Ethnic Minorities, South China Morning Post (13 March 2010).

  130. 130.

    Ibid.

  131. 131.

    Ibid., 413.

  132. 132.

    Kent Roach, Wrongful Convictions: Adversarial and Inquisitorial Themes, N.C. J. INT’L L. & COM. REG, XXXV: 2010 (401).

  133. 133.

    Antonio Lamer, The Lamer Commission of Inquiry Pertaining to the Cases of: Ronald Dalton, Gregory Parsons and Randy Druken, 2006 (72), available at: http://www.justice.gov.nl.ca/just/lamer/LamerReport.pdf.

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    Na Jiang

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Jiang, N. (2016). The Different Roots of Wrongful Convictions. In: Wrongful Convictions in China. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46084-9_4

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