Abstract
When searching for the “sources” of social human rights at the international level, the canon of sources of international law, as stipulated in Article 38ICJ, is an obvious starting-point. According to this provision, international treaties are particularly significant—these can be treaties ratified at both the global (see Sects. 2.1–2.3) and regional level (Sect. 2.4), treaties containing statements on social rights in general (such as the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which will be discussed further under Sect. 2.1), and finally those concerning particular topics with references to individual social rights (Sect. 2.2). All these treaties have in common the fact that they include certain mechanisms (procedures, institutions) for the national implementation of the international obligations. An additional source of international law worthy of consideration in relation to social rights is customary international law, whose practical implications in the field of human rights, however, have receded into the background. Instead, the multifaceted soft law documents of international organizations working on development issues have recently gained increasing importance: Although these documents do not constitute sources of international law in the narrower sense, they have a significant influence on the normative advancement of social human rights and their implementation on the national level (Sect. 2.5).
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- 1.
993 UNTS 3, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&lang=en. For an introduction to the main provisions see Riedel 2011.—All websites cited in this chapter have been last accessed 3 September 2014.
- 2.
As a resolution of an international organization, the UDHR is not a legally binding document; nevertheless many authors—quite rightly—assume that (most of) its provisions have meanwhile achieved the status of international customary law (see the references in Kälin and Künzli 2009, p. 71, note 98). For the debate on the customary law status of the UDHR see also Hannum 1995; Hillgenberg 1999, p. 505; Buergenthal 2007, para 9; von Bernstorff 2008, p. 913; McBeth et al. 2011, pp. 22–24; Crawford 2012, pp. 279–280; Bantekas and Oette 2013, pp. 62–63; with regard to the basic social rights Salomon 2013, p. 270.
- 3.
- 4.
See for more details Ssenyonjo 2009, pp. 203–243.
- 5.
For another systematization see, for example, Pollmann and Lohmann 2012, who differentiate between subsistence rights (inter alia the rights to an adequate standard of living, to food, clothing and housing, and the right to health) and social rights (the right to social security and the protection of the family).
- 6.
- 7.
www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cescr/comments.htm; cf also Tomuschat 2010, pp. 190–191; Riedel 2010, paras 11–14.
- 8.
- 9.
Kälin and Künzli 2009, pp. 217–218, however, rightly point to the fact that the criticism of the lack of effectiveness of the procedure mostly misses the point: “(T)he awareness-raising potential of the process of preparing a country report should not be underestimated, provided, of course, that all relevant administrative bodies are involved and civil society is genuinely given a say. … At the same time, the consensus-based procedure enables the committees not only to denounce treaty violations but also to identify ways of tackling them and to commend positive elements”.
- 10.
There is obviously a need for streamlining these manifold reporting obligations; see Kälin and Künzli 2009, pp. 218–220.
- 11.
- 12.
For a comparison of the OP with the procedures of the ACHPR see Chenwi 2012, pp. 244–256.
- 13.
It is confirmed that this perception cannot be maintained nowadays, especially by national law: Social rights have been explicitly included in the catalogue of basic rights in many constitutions and are the subject of court proceedings (see infra Sect. 3.1. footnote 7); for the ICESCR see Schrijver 2013, p. 150: “It is a widespread misunderstanding that the rights contained in this Covenant are merely programmatory and hence not capable of direct application and non-justiciable, as opposed to those contained in the ICCPR.” Cf. also, generally on this debate, Dennis and Stewart 2004, p. 515; Schneider 2004, pp. 24–34; Shany 2007; Ssenyonjo 2009, pp. 5, 12; Whelan and Donnelly 2007, pp. 932–936; Riedel 2008; Osiatynski 2009, pp. 116–126; Gearty and Mantouvalou 2011; Freeman 2011, p. 181; McBeth et al. 2011, pp. 29–32; Eichenhofer 2012, pp. 203–206; Krennerich 2013, pp. 116–123; Mahler 2013.
- 14.
Vedder 2009, para 152.
- 15.
1249 UNTS 13, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en; see, generally, on the social rights of women Barak-Erez 2007; van Leeuwen 2010; Fredman 2013; Chinkin 2014.
- 16.
1577 UNTS 3; https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-11&chapter=4&lang=en; see Khadka 2013; Nolan 2013.
- 17.
- 18.
2515 UNTS 3; https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-15&chapter=4&lang=en; see Ziv 2007.
- 19.
Articles 11(1)f, 12, 14(2)b CEDAW, Article 24 CRC, Articles 28, 43(1)e CMW, Article 25 CRPD.
- 20.
Articles 11(1)e, 14(2)c CEDAW, Article 26 CRC, Article 27 CMW, Article 28(2) CRPD.
- 21.
Article 14(2)h CEDAW, Article 27 CRC, Article 28(1)CRPD.
- 22.
Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, http://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/cedaw/pages/cedawindex.aspx; Committee on the Rights of the Child, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/CRCIndex.aspx; Committee on Migrant Workers, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CMW/Pages/CMWIndex.aspx; Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, http://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/crpd/pages/crpdindex.aspx.
- 23.
UN Doc. A/RES/65/182, 21.12.2010, see http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/OlderPersons/Pages/OEWorkingGroup.aspx.
- 24.
http://www.rightsofolderpeople.org/; see also HelpAge 2011.
- 25.
See, for example, Open-ended Working Group on Ageing for the purpose of strengthening the protection of the human rights of older persons, 5th working session, 30.7.-1.8.2014, Opening statement by the European Union, http://social.un.org/ageing-working-group/documents/fifth/European%20Union_Opening%20Statement.pdf; see, generally, on the (social) protection of older persons Mégret 2011; Leisering 2011.
- 26.
210 UNTS 131; http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::p12100_instrument_id:312247; see also infra Sect. 4.3.
- 27.
See Nussberger 2005, p. 126.
- 28.
- 29.
Together with the UN Charter and the UDHR, these two covenants form the so-called “International Bill of Rights ”.
- 30.
Cf. Tomuschat 2010, p. 172.
- 31.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/HRCIndex.aspx. In addition the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) is to be mentioned, whose task is to support the work of the UN human rights mechanisms and to coordinate UN human rights education and public information activities; http://www.ohchr.org/EN/AboutUs/Pages/WhoWeAre.aspx.
- 32.
It can also schedule theme-orientated meetings on current global human rights issues. Examples with a particular focus on social rights are the 7th special session on “The negative impact on the realization of the right to food of the worsening of the world food crisis, caused inter alia by the soaring food prices” in 2008, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/SpecialSessions/Session7/Pages/7thSpecialSession.aspx; and the 10th special session on “The Impact of the Global Economic and Financial Crises on the Universal Realization and Effective Enjoyment of Human Rights” in 2009, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/SpecialSessions/Session10/Pages/10thSpecialSession.aspx.
- 33.
UN Doc. A/RES/60/251, 15.3.2006, para 4.
- 34.
- 35.
Institution-building of the UN Human Rights Council, UN Doc. A/HRC/RES/5/1, 18.6.2007; for the procedure see in more detail Vedder 2009, paras 155–161.
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
- 39.
- 40.
- 41.
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/OlderPersons/IE/Pages/IEOlderPersons.aspx. The Special Rapporteur will be appointed at the 27th session of the HRC in September 2014.
- 42.
- 43.
- 44.
UN Doc. A/HRC/26/L.9, 20, 20.6.2014; http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/LTD/G14/057/27/PDF/G1405727.pdf?OpenElement.
- 45.
- 46.
The Open-ended Working Group was established on the basis of the Resolution 1998 of the UN Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/RES/1998/72); for previous activity of the Working Group see http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Development/Pages/WGRightToDevelopment.aspx.
- 47.
High-level Task Force on the Implemen-tation of the Right to Development, http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Development/Pages/HighLevelTaskForce.aspx; cf. also Salomon 2005; von Schorlemer 2008, pp. 215–216.
- 48.
UN Doc. A/RES/41/128, 4.12.1986.
- 49.
See for more information on MDG 8 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/global.shtml.
- 50.
UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/25, 3.3.2005, para 54(i).
- 51.
- 52.
“The right to development is the right of peoples and individuals to the constant improvement of their well-being and to a national and global enabling environment conducive to just, equitable, participatory and human-centred development respectful of all human rights.” See for more details the Report of the High-Level Task Force on the implementation of the right to development on its sixth session—Addendum: Right to development criteria and operational sub-criteria, UN-Doc. A/HRC/15/WG.2/TF/2/Add.2., 8.3.2010.
- 53.
EU Contribution on the Right to Development, 16.4.2012, http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Development/Session13/EUSubmission.pdf.
- 54.
- 55.
See infra Sect. 3.2.
- 56.
- 57.
OAS Treaty Series No. 36; 1144 UNTS; https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%201144/volume-1144-I-17955-English.pdf.
- 58.
See, for example, Article 26: “The States Parties undertake to adopt measures, both internally and through international cooperation, especially those of an economic and technical nature, with a view to achieving progressively, by legislation or other appropriate means, the full realization of the rights implicit in the economic, social, educational, scientific, and cultural standards set forth in the Charter of the Organization of American States as amended by the Protocol of Buenos Aires”.
- 59.
Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the area of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, OAS Treaty Series No. 69; http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-52.html; see Gómez 2007, pp. 171–174; Ruiz Chiriboga 2013.
- 60.
http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/; see Melish 2009; cf. for an analysis of the jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court on Human Rights Tinta 2007; see also, generally, Seibert-Fohr 2008.
- 61.
Article 19(7) San Salvador Protocol.
- 62.
AG/RES 1608, http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-65.html.
- 63.
- 64.
- 65.
Naldi 2008, pp. 29–30 (with further references).
- 66.
- 67.
Social and Economic Rights Action Centre (SERAC) v. Nigeria (2001), Communication No. 155/96, para 65; see also para 7 of the Pretoria Declaration on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Africa, adopted by the ACHPR in December 2004, http://www.achpr.org/instruments/pretoria-declaration/; and para 68 of the Principles and Guidelines on the Interpretation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, adopted by the ACHPR in November 2010, http://www.achpr.org/files/instruments/economic-social-cultural/achpr_instr_guide_draft_esc_rights_eng.pdf (for a similar approach with regard to the rights to housing, to water and sanitation and to social security see paras 77, 88 and 87 of this document); cf. furthermore Nwobike 2005; Chirwa 2009, pp. 324–325, 331–332.
- 68.
OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/24.9/49, 11.7.1990; http://www.au.int/en/sites/default/files/Charter_En_African_Charter_on_the_Rights_and_Wlefare_of_the_Child_AddisAbaba_July1990.pdf; cf. Viljoen 1998; Peter and Mwalimu 2012; Imoh and Ansell 2014.
- 69.
OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/66.6, 13.9.2000); http://www.achpr.org/files/instruments/women-protocol/achpr_instr_proto_women_eng.pdf; see Banda 2008; Mayanja 2012.
- 70.
Published in International Human Rights Reports 12 (2005), p. 893; see Rishmawi 2010.
- 71.
- 72.
- 73.
Article 39 ASEAN Human Rights Declaration.
- 74.
- 75.
- 76.
Terms of Reference of AICHR, para 4; Rules of Procedure of the ACWC; http://www.asean.org/images/2012/Social_cultural/ACWC/documents/Rules%20of%20Procedure%20of%20ACWC_FINAL.pdf, paras 31, 48; Terms of Reference of the ACWC; http://www.asean.org/images/2012/Social_cultural/ACW/TOR-ACWC.pdf, paras 5.1–5.16.
- 77.
For a detailed discussion of international soft law see, inter alia, Bothe 1980; Heusel 1991; Fastenrath 1993; Hillgenberg 1999; Shelton 2003; Boyle and Chinkin 2007, pp. 211–229; Pauwelyn et al. 2012; Shaffer and Pollack 2013, pp. 197–222; Thürer 2009, paras 3, 25–32; the following section is based on Kaltenborn 1998, pp. 96–103.
- 78.
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
Until now, it is not clearly settled which elements are in particular attributed to soft law. The wide range of coverage of the term is described ostensively by Abbott and Snidal 2000, p. 422: “The realm of ‘soft law’ begins once legal arrangements are weakened along one or more of the dimensions of obligation, precision, and delegation. This softening can occur in varying degrees along each dimension and in different combinations across dimensions. We use the shorthand term soft law to distinguish this broad class of deviations from hard law—and, at the other extreme, from purely political arrangements in which legalization is largely absent.” For a detailed presentation of various forms of soft law on the international level see Knauff 2010, pp. 258–296.
- 82.
- 83.
Boyle 2010, p. 137; see also Riedel, 1986, p. 342; Engelhardt 2009, p. 504. In the field of social rights, the ILO is an important example of an organization that has recently opted, as a result of these strategic considerations, for an increased implementation of recommendations and codes of conduct instead of the conventional legislative form of draft conventions, see Abbott and Snidal 2000, p. 434; cf. on ILO legislative practice also Leary 1997.
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
Vitzthum 2013, para 152 (citing Thürer 1985, pp. 441 et seqq.); see also Klabbers 1996, p. 181: “Our binary law is well capable of handling all kinds of subtleties and sensitivities; within the binary mode, law can be more or less specific, more or less exact, more or less determinate, more or less wide in scope, more or less pressing, more or less serious, more or less far-reaching; the only thing it cannot be is more or less binding.”
- 88.
- 89.
Pellet 1987, p. 127.
- 90.
- 91.
- 92.
- 93.
- 94.
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, UN World Conference on Human Rights, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/23, 25.6.1993, http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/vienna.aspx, para 5. See, generally, on the controversial issue of the indivisibility of human rights Petersmann 2003; Lohmann et al. 2005; Nickel 2008.
- 95.
- 96.
See, for example, Bantekas and Oette 2013, p. 367: “… ESC rights are by no means the poor relative of civil and political rights. In fact many of the latter are meaningless without ESC rights.”
- 97.
United Nations Millennium Declaration, UN-Doc. A/RES/55/2, 18.9.2000, http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm, paras 24, 25; see also infra Sect. 5.3.
- 98.
Final Declaration of the Follow-up International Conference on Financing for Development to Review the Implementation of the Monterrey Consensus, UN Doc. A/CONF.212/L.1/Rev.1, 9.12.2008, paras 2, 19; http://www.un.org/esa/ffd/doha/documents/Doha_Declaration_FFD.pdf .
- 99.
UN-Doc. A/CONF.219/3/Rev.1, https://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/ldc/shared/documents/IPoA.pdf, paras 26(i), 28(e), 29(e, f), 78.2(a, e), 89(b), 90.2(d), 129(a), 130(a).
- 100.
The Busan Partnership for Effective Development Co-operation, 1.12.2011, http://www.oecd.org/dac/effectiveness/49650173.pdf, paras 3, 11, 22.
- 101.
UN Doc. A/RES/66/288 (“The Future We Want”), 11.9.2012, paras 8, 9, 58(d), 108, 121, 138, 145, 152, 157, 229, 240, 241; http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/476/10/PDF/N1147610.pdf?OpenElement.
- 102.
The General Comments of CESCR have already been mentioned (Sect. 2.1). They currently represent the most important soft law source in the field of social human rights.
- 103.
See, for example, in 2010–2012 WHA 63.16/2010, Annex 5, WHO Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel (para 3.4: “Member States should take into account the right to the highest attainable standard of health of the populations of source countries, …”); WHA 64.14/2011, Annex 4, Global Health Sector Strategy on HIV/AIDS, 2011–2015 (para 100: “National HIV responses should implement and monitor policies and practices aimed at eliminating stigmatization, discrimination and other human rights abuses in health service delivery. … Links should be established with broader accountability mechanisms that assess progress in protecting human rights, including the right to health.”); WHA 65.17/2012, Annex 4, Global Vaccine Action Plan (para 2: “Immunization is, and should be recognized as, a core component of the human right to health …”); http://apps.who.int/gb/or/.
- 104.
See, for example, the Voluntary Guidelines to support the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security, adopted by the 127th Session of the FAO Council, 22.-27.11.2004; http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/009/y9825e/y9825e00.HTM (for an analysis of these guidelines see Engelhardt 2009, pp. 517–524); Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food Security, 16.11.2009; http://www.fao.org/wsfs/wsfs-list-documents/en/.
- 105.
- 106.
See infra Sect. 5.2.
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Kaltenborn, M. (2015). Legal Sources of Social Rights and Implementation Mechanisms at the International Level. In: Social Rights and International Development. SpringerBriefs in Law. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45352-0_2
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