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The Legal Status of the Caspian Sea pp 117–163Cite as

Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea

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Abstract

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the significance of the existing regulations on the protection of the fragile Caspian maritime environment. The adequacy of the existing rules will be judged by their ability to protect the marine environment of the Caspian Sea. This analysis presents a rather practical approach to examining existing legal acts in the Caspian Sea, and is based on the analysis of and comparison with the related international treaties and agreements.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    http://www.caspcom.com/index.php?razd=sess&lang=1&sess=17&podsess=52 (Accessed 1 July 2014).

  2. 2.

    UNEP Regional Seas Programme; Washington Global Programme of Action for Protecting the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities 1995; Rotterdam Convention 1998.

  3. 3.

    Definition of reservations according to Article 2(1)d of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.

  4. 4.

    Text in: ILM 11 (1972), 1416.

  5. 5.

    Text in: ILM 31 T.

  6. 6.

    Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 13 and 14; Antarctic Marine living Resources Convention 1980, Article II(1) and (2); Jeddah Convention 1982, Article 1(1) define “conservation” objectives as including “rational use,” regarding migratory birds: Western Hemisphere Convention 1940, Article VII]; regarding fisheries: Danube Fishing Convention 1958, Preamble and VIII; 1959 North- East Fisheries Convention, Preamble and Article V(1)(b); Black Sea Fishing Convention 1959, Preamble and Article 1 and 7; South Atlantic Fisheries Convention 1969, Preamble; Baltic Fishing Convention 1973, Article I and X(h); Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Convention 1978, Article II(1), regarding salmon: North Atlantic Salmon Convention 1982, Preamble, regarding all natural resources: 1968 African Conservation Convention, Article II, Amazonian Treaty 1978, Articles I and VII, regarding seals: Antarctic Seals Convention 1972, Article 3(1); Convention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals 1976, Article II(2)(g), regarding hydro resources Amazonian Treaty 1978, Article V;

  7. 7.

    Regarding fisheries: General fisheries Council for Mediterranean 1949, Preamble and Article IV(a); regarding forests: American Forest Institute 1959, Article III(1)(a).

  8. 8.

    Regarding flora and fauna 1968 African conservation Convention, Article VII(1); Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 4, South Pacific Nature Conservation 1976, Article V(1); regarding wetlands: Ramsar Wetlands Convention 1971, Articles 2(6) and 6(2)(d); regarding natural resources generally: Bonn Convention 1979, Preamble.

  9. 9.

    See: Robinson (1998), 2 et seq.

  10. 10.

    South Pacific Nature Convention 1976, Preamble; 1992 Helsinki Convention, Article 2(5)(c); 1985 ASEAN Convention, Preamble; Kuwait Convention 1978, Preamble; 1983 Cartagena de Indias Protocol, Preamble; Jeddah Convention 1982, Article 1 (1); Biodiversity Convention 1992, Preamble; Climate Change Convention 1992, Article 3(1); Nairobi Convention 1985, Preamble; CITES 1973, Preamble; ENMOD Convention 1977, Preamble; Bonn Convention 1979, Preamble.

  11. 11.

    UN General Assembly Resolution 35/8 of 1980 Historical Responsibility of States for the Preservation of Nature for Present and Future Generations; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 3.

  12. 12.

    United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2749 (XXV) of 17 December 1970.

  13. 13.

    See: Thompson (2004).

  14. 14.

    See: Davidson (2003).

  15. 15.

    See: Farber (2003), S. 1.

  16. 16.

    Twelfth Report, Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (1988), 57.

  17. 17.

    See: Fleury (1995), S. 45.

  18. 18.

    See: O’Connell and Oldfather (1993).

  19. 19.

    Vienna Convention 1985, Preamble; Montreal Protocol 1987, Preamble; The Ministerial Declaration of the Second North Sea Conference 1987; The Third North Sea Conference 1990.

  20. 20.

    Bamako Convention 1991, Article 4(3)(f); Helsinki Convention 1992, Article 2(5)(a); Biodiversity Convention 1992, Preamble; Climate Change Convention 1992, Article 3(3); OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 2(2)(a); 1992 Baltic sea Convention Article 3(2); Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 15.

  21. 21.

    OECD Council Recommendation on Guiding Principles Concerning the International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies C(72)128(1972), 14 I.L.M. (1975), 236; 1989 OECD Council Recommendation on the Application of the Polluter-Pays Principle to Accidental Pollution, C(89)88(Final)(1989), 28 I.L.M. 1320.

  22. 22.

    1973 Programme of Action on the Environment, OJ C 112, 20.12.1973, p. 1; Council Recommendation 75/436/EURATOM, ECSC, EEC of 3 March 1975, Annex, paragraph 2, OJ l 169, 29.6.1987, p. 1.

  23. 23.

    1985 ASEAN Convention, Article 10(d); 1991 Alpine Convention, Article 2(1); 1992 Helsinki Convention, Article 2(5)(b), OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 2(2)(b); 1992 Baltic Sea Convention, Article 3(4); 1990 Oil Pollution Preparedness Convention, Preamble; Industrial Accidents Convention 1992, Preamble.

  24. 24.

    Recommendation on the implementation of the Polluter-Pays Principle, C(74)223 (1974); Recommendation on the Application of the polluter-pays principle to Accidental Pollution, C(88)89 (Final)(1989) 28 ILM 1320.

  25. 25.

    International Convention for the prevention of pollution of the sea by oil of 1954, Convention on the High Seas of 1958 (Article 24, 25): UNCLOS; London Convention 1972, MARPOL.

  26. 26.

    UNEP Regional Seas Programme; OSPAR Convention 1992; Baltic Convention (1992).

  27. 27.

    Tehran Convention Article 1; UNCLOS, Article 1(4).

  28. 28.

    Caspian Sea state of environment 2011, Report by the interim Secretariat of the Tehran Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea and the Project Coordination Management Unit of the “CaspEco” project, pp. 28–32, See: http://www.grida.no/publications/caspian-sea/, Accessed 1 July 2014. Section on land-based pollutants was based on the first and the second Transboundary Diagnostic Analyses, Rapid Assessment of Pollution Sources studies performed by all littoral states (2007), the Baseline Inventory Report: Land-based point and non-point pollution sources in the Caspian Coastal Zone (2008) and the Regional Pollution Action Plan (2009).

  29. 29.

    Athens LBS Protocol 1980; Quito LBS Protocol 1983; Kuwait LBS Protocol 1990.

  30. 30.

    Tehran Convention, Article 7.2; see also Montreal Guidelines and OSPAR Convention 1992.

  31. 31.

    1. Agriculture and animal husbandry; 2. Industry (Aquaculture; Electronic; Energy production; Fertilizer production; Food processing; Forestry; Nuclear; Metal industry; Mining; Oil and gas related activities; Paper and pulp; Pharmaceutical; Production of construction materials; Production and formulation of biocides; Recycling;· Shipbuilding and repairing; Tanning; Textile; Waste management: Hazardous and toxic waste; Industrial Wastewaters; Municipal solid waste and wastewaters; Radioactive waste; Sewage sludge disposal; Waste incineration and management of its residues; Rocket fuel; 4. Tourism; 5. Transport; 6. Construction and management of artificial islands; 7. Construction of motorways and highways; 8. Liquidation of chemical weapons and ammunition; 9. Dredging; 10. Construction of harbours and harbour operations; 11. Alteration of the natural physical state of the coastline; 12. Installations out of exploitation which are affected by sea-level fluctuations.

  32. 32.

    1. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. 2. Cumulative effects of substances. 3. Distribution patterns of substances (i.e. quantities involved, use patterns and probability of reaching the marine environment). 4. Effects on the organoleptic characteristics of marine products intended for human consumption. 5. Effects on the smell, colour, transparency, temperature or other characteristics of seawater. 6. Health effects and risks. 7. Negative impacts on marine life and the sustainable use of living resources or another legitimate uses of the sea. 8. Persistence of substances. 9. Potential for causing eutrophication. 10. Radioactivity. 11. Ratio between observed concentrations and no observed effect concentrations (NOEC). 12. Risk of undesirable changes in the marine ecosystem and irreversibility or durability of effects. 13. Toxicity or other noxious properties (e.g. carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity). 14. Capability of long-distance transport.

  33. 33.

    OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 5 and Annex III; UNEP Guidelines on offshore Mining and Drilling 1982, Baltic Sea Convention (1992), Article 12(1).

  34. 34.

    See: Barannik et al. (2004), pp. 45 et seq.

  35. 35.

    Intervention Protocol of 1973.

  36. 36.

    Hegimoklu (1999).

  37. 37.

    Barcelona Dumping Protocol 1976, Article 2; Noumea Dumping Protocol 1986, Article 2; Paipa Dumping Protocol 1989, Article 1.

  38. 38.

    Case concerning Trail Smelter Arbitration (USA v. Canada), 3. UNRIAA 1905 (1941); Corfu Chanel Case (1949) ICJ 4; Lake Lanoux Arbitration (Spain v. France), 12 UNRIAA 281 (1963).

  39. 39.

    UNCLOS, Article 1.1(5), 210.1; Tehran Convention, Article 10.1.

  40. 40.

    London Dumping Convention, Article V; Interim Procedures and Criteria for Determining Emergency Situations, LDC V/12, Annex 5.

  41. 41.

    London Dumping Convention, Article IV(1)(b) and (c).

  42. 42.

    London Dumping Convention, Article VI(3) and Annex III, as mentioned in 1989, Res LDC 32(11), Amendments to the Guidelines for the Application of Annex III (LDC 11/14, Annex IV).

  43. 43.

    Geospatial Technologies and Human Rights Project—Satellite Imagery Analysis for Environmental Monitoring: Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan May 2013, prepared by American Association for the Advancement of Science (assessment of two towns located near Turkmenbashi on the Caspian Sea: Avaza and Tarta). For full report: http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2013/media/AAAS_Turkmenistan_Oil_2013.pdf. Accessed 1 July 2014.

  44. 44.

    Copenhagen Agreement 1971; Helsinki Convention 1992, Article 7, Annex IV; 1976 Barcelona Convention, Article 6; Kuwait Convention 1978, Article IV; Abidjan Convention 1981, Article 5; Lima Convention 1981, Article 4 (b); Lima Convention 1981; Jeddah Convention 1982: Cartagena Convention 1983, Article 5; Bonn Agreement 1983; Nairobi Convention 1985, Article 5; Noumea Convention 1986, Article 6.

  45. 45.

    http://ecowatch.com/2012/04/19/bpcoverup. Accessed 1 July 2014.

  46. 46.

    UN Water Convention, Article 28.

  47. 47.

    Mediterranean Emergency Protocol (1976), Article 1; Kuwait Emergency Protocol 1978, Article II; Jeddah Pollution Emergency Protocol 1982, Article II.

  48. 48.

    UNCLOS, Article 192.1.

  49. 49.

    UN Water Convention, Article 20.

  50. 50.

    African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1968, Article II; ASEAN Agreement 1985, Article 1.

  51. 51.

    Paragraph 17.46, A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II) (1992).

  52. 52.

    Tehran Convention, Article 14.1c; UNCLOS, Article 61(1) and (2).

  53. 53.

    Caspian State of Environment, pp. 54–62.

  54. 54.

    Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992, Article 8b.

  55. 55.

    Global Invasive Species Programmes, European Plant Conservation Strategy.

  56. 56.

    MEPC Res (1991) 50(31); Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992, Objectives, Article 8h; Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1998, Decision IV/5; in 2002, Decision VI/23; 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, Plan of Implementation, paragraph 34(b); IMO, Res A.774(18) in 1993 and A.868(20) in 1997.

  57. 57.

    1991 MEPC Resolution 50(31); 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, Objectives, Article 8h; Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in: 1998-Decision IV/5, in 2002 Decision VI/23; 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development, Plan of Implementation, paragraph 34(b); IMO, Resolution A.774 (18) in 1993 and A.868 (20) in 1997.

  58. 58.

    Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979.

  59. 59.

    Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (2002). http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/?lg=0&dec=VI/23 (Accessed 1 July 2014).

  60. 60.

    Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its 46th session, and next International Legal Committee, Commentary, 1994, Yearbook of the International Law Commission, vol. 2 pt. 2, p. 122.

  61. 61.

    Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its 46th session, and next International Legal Committee, Commentary, ILCYB (1994), Vol. 2, Part 2, 122, 124.

  62. 62.

    Caspian State of Environment, pp. 62–63.

  63. 63.

    Chapter 17 Agenda 21.

  64. 64.

    Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone, UNEP-ICAM: Integrated Coastal Area and River Basin Management, EUCC-The Coastal Union, HELCOM HABITAT Group.

  65. 65.

    UNCED resolutions, Rio de Janeiro 1992, Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, statements from “The World Coast 1993” conference; Washington Declaration on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, Preamble, 23 October to 3 November 1995.

  66. 66.

    Common Recommendations for Spatial Planning of the Coastal Zone in the Baltic Sea Region, Preamble (1969), Article 2b.

  67. 67.

    UNCED Resolutions, Rio de Janeiro (1992), Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, statements from “The World Coast 1993” Conference; Washington Declaration on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, Preamble (23 October–3 November 1995).

  68. 68.

    http://www.coastalguide.org/icm/caspian/index.html. Accessed 1 July 2014.

  69. 69.

    Ibidem.

  70. 70.

    Golubev (1997), p. 67, http://www.ilec.or.jp/en/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Vol.8_World_Lakes_in_Crisis.pdf in p. 67 (Accessed 1 July 2014).

  71. 71.

    CITES, Article XIII.

  72. 72.

    Attachment IV Montreal Protocol 1987.

  73. 73.

    Article 4 (2) Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer; Chapter 33, 34 Agenda 21.

  74. 74.

    Article 202, 203, 266, 267 UNCLOS; Article 4, 5 Climate Change Convention.

  75. 75.

    Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 24; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 27.

  76. 76.

    Industrial Accident Convention 1992, Preamble.

  77. 77.

    London Convention 1933, Article 12(2); Western Hemisphere Convention 1940, Article VI; Alpine Convention 1991, Article 2(1).

  78. 78.

    Vienna Convention 1985, Article 2(2), Biodiversity Convention 1992, Article 5.

  79. 79.

    Article 20 research programs should be aimed, inter alia, at: a) developing methods for the assessment of the toxicity of harmful substances and investigations of its affecting process on the environment of the Caspian Sea; b) developing and applying environmentally sound or safe technologies; c) the phasing out and/or substitution of substances likely to cause pollution; d) developing environmentally sound or safe methods for the disposal of hazardous substances; e) developing environmentally sound or safe techniques for water- construction works and water- regulation; f) assessing the physical and financial damage resulting from pollution; g) improvement of knowledge about the hydrological regime and ecosystem dynamics of the Caspian Sea including sea level fluctuations and the effects of such fluctuations on the Sea and coastal ecosystems; h) studying the levels of radiation and radioactivity in the Caspian Sea.

  80. 80.

    Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 2; 1982 World Charter for Nature, Paragraphs 15, 18, 19, 23.

  81. 81.

    IAEA Notification Convention 1986; Basel Convention 1989; EC Directive on Environmental Information 1991; Industrial Accidents Convention 1992, Rio Declaration 1992; Agenda 21, Chapter 40.

  82. 82.

    European Plant Protection Convention 1951, Article V(9).

  83. 83.

    South-West Asia Locust Agreement 1963, Article II(1).

  84. 84.

    African Phyto-Sanitary Convention 1954, Article 9.

  85. 85.

    1972 National Environmental Protection Act; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 16; Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 14 and 15; OECD Council Recommendation C(74) 216, Analysis of the Environmental Consequences of Significant Public and Private Projects, 14 Nov. 1974; OECD Council Recommendation C(79)116, Assessment of Projects with Significant Impact on the Environment, 8 May 1979; FAO Comparative Legal Strategy on Environmental Impact Assessment and Agricultural Development, 1982 FAO Environmental Paper; OECD Council Recommendation C(85) 104 on Environmental Assessment of Development Assistance Projects and programs, 20 June 1985; 1986 World Commission on Environment and Development, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development: Legal Principles and Recommendations, 58 to 62; Goals and Principles of Environmental Impact Assessment, UNEP/GC/DEC/14/25 (1987); 1992 Agenda 21, Paragraphs 7.41(b); 8.4; 8.5(b); 10.8(b); 9.12(b); 11.24(a); 13.17(a), 15.5(k), 16.45(c); 17.5(d); 18.22(c); 19.21(d); 21.31(a); 22.4(d); 23.2.

  86. 86.

    1985 adopted EC Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment; ESPOO Convention; Antarctic-Environmental Protocol 1991 to the Antarctic Treaty of 1959.

  87. 87.

    See: Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Arg. v. Uru.), 178–180 (Judgment of April 20, 2010), available at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/135/15877.pdf. Accessed 1 July 2014. The Court observed that the practice of environmental impact assessment (EIA) “has gained so much acceptance among States that it may now be considered a requirement under general international law to undertake an environmental impact assessment where there is a risk that the proposed industrial activity may have a significant adverse impact in a transboundary context, in particular, on a shared resource,” 204.

  88. 88.

    See: Tilleman (1995).

  89. 89.

    UNDP; WB; UNEP.

  90. 90.

    Mediterranean Emergency Protocol 1976, Article 1; Kuwait Emergency Protocol 1978, Article II; Jeddah Pollution Emergency Protocol 1982, Article II; etc.

  91. 91.

    Azerbaijan (25.03.1999 accession), Kazakhstan (11.01.2001 accession), Russia (6.06.1991 signature).

  92. 92.

    Tropical Tuna Commission Convention 1949, Article 1(2); African Phyto-Sanitary Convention 1954; Article 3(b); Agreement establishing the EBRD 1990, Article 35.

  93. 93.

    London Convention 1933, Article 5(1) and 8(6).

  94. 94.

    International Whaling Convention 1946, Article VIII(1).

  95. 95.

    Plant Protection Agreement 1956, Article II(1)(b); Basel Convention 1989, Article 3(1); Biodiversity Convention 1992, Article 26; Climate Change Convention 1992, Article 12; OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 22.

  96. 96.

    UNGA Res. 47/191 (1992), para. 3(b).

  97. 97.

    Climate Change Convention 1992, Articles. 12(3), and 4(3), (4) and (5).

  98. 98.

    Agenda 21 UNGA res 47/191 (1992), para. 3(h).

  99. 99.

    Stockholm Declaration 1972; UNEP draft Principle of Conduct 1978, Principle 6; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 19; 1980 Agreement between Spain and Portugal on Co-operation in Matters Affecting the Safety of Nuclear Installation, Article 2.

  100. 100.

    ASEAN Agreement 1985, Article 18(2)(e).

  101. 101.

    Quito LBS Protocol 1983, Article XII and Athens LBS Protocol 1980, Article 12(1); 1974 Nordic Environmental protection Convention, Article 11 and Espoo Convention 1991, Article 5 and Industrial Accidents Convention 1992, Article 4; 1979 LRTAP Convention, Article 5.

  102. 102.

    1968 African Nature Convention, Article V(2); Ramsar Convention 1971, Article 5; 1982 UNCLOS, 142(2); 1982 Geneva SPA Protocol, Article 6(1).

  103. 103.

    1981 Abidian Emergency Protocol, Article 10 (1)(b); London Convention 1972, Article V(2); 1986 I.E. Notification Convention, Article 6; ILO Radiation Convention 1960, Article 1.

  104. 104.

    1985 FAO Pesticides Guidelines; 1989 UNEP London Guidelines; Basel Convention 1989; 1989 Lomé Convention.

  105. 105.

    1982 UNCLOS, Article 198; 199 Biodiversity Convention, Article 14(1)(d); 1992 Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 18.

  106. 106.

    1974 OECD Recommendation, para. 9; 1978 UNEP draft Principles of Conduct, Principle 9.

  107. 107.

    1982 Montreal ILA Rules, Article 7; 1987 IDI Resolution, Article 9(1)(a).

  108. 108.

    Lac Lanoux Arbitration, 24 I.L.R. 101 (1957); Fisheries Jurisdiction Cases (United Kingdom v. Iceland) (Merits), 1974 ICJ Rep. 3, Special Agreement between Hungary and the Slovak Republic for Submission to the ICJ of the Differences between them, 32 I.L.M. 1294 (1993).

  109. 109.

    1978 UNEP Draft Principles, Principle 7; 1986 WCED Legal Principles, Article 17; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 19, etc.

  110. 110.

    Treaty of Rarotonga 1985, Article 10 and Annex 3.

  111. 111.

    Article 22.10(g) of Tehran Convention.

  112. 112.

    See: Beyerlin (2000), p. 244.

  113. 113.

    Antarctic Convention 1959, Article VII; London Convention 1972, Article VI(1)(d); Rhine Chemical Pollution Convention 1976, Article 10(1); Paris LBS Convention 1974, Article 11; 1976 Barcelona Convention, Article 101982 UNCLOS, Article 204(1) and (2) and Article 226 (1); OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 6 and Annex IV; Helsinki Convention 1992, Article 11; Biodiversity Convention 1992, Article 7(b) and (c); Agenda 21, Chapter 40.

  114. 114.

    OSPAR Convention 1992, Annex IV, Article 1.

  115. 115.

    Earthwatch, Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS), International Environmental Information System (INFOTERRA), The European Environment Agency.

  116. 116.

    Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 10; Agenda 21, Chapter 36.

  117. 117.

    Strategic Action Program for the Caspian Sea, prepared by Caspian Environmental Programme, in: Programme Coordination Unit, 2003.

  118. 118.

    See http://iwlearn.net/iw-projects/1618/reports/caspiansea_sap_2003.pdf/view, p. 4. Accessed 1 July 2014.

  119. 119.

    EC Environmental Information Directive 90/313/EEC, OJ L 158, 23. Juni, 56; OSPAR Convention 1992, Article 9; Lugano Convention 1993, Article 13–16; Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 10; Agenda 21, para. 23.3; Occupational Health Services Convention 1985, Article 13; Asbestos Convention 1986, Article 20.

  120. 120.

    Aarhus Convention of 1998.

  121. 121.

    See: McAllister (1998).

  122. 122.

    Council Regulation 92/880/EEC, OJ L 99, 11 April 1992, Article 1.

  123. 123.

    Report of the Secretary General: Accounting for Environmental Protection measures; UN doc. E/C.10/1991/5, 11 February 1991.

  124. 124.

    Council Regulation 93/1836/EEC, OJ L 168, 10 July 1993, 1; Article 1(1) and (2).

  125. 125.

    Biodiversity Convention, Article 16.

  126. 126.

    UNCLOS 1982, Article 1(4)

  127. 127.

    Vienna Convention 1985, Article 1(2); Climate Change Convention, Article 1(1).

  128. 128.

    Trail Smelter Case, 16 APRIL 1938, 11 March 1941;3 R.I.A.A 1907 (1941).

  129. 129.

    ILC Draft Articles on International Liability, Article 24.

  130. 130.

    Radiological Protection Criteria for Controlling Doses to the Public in the Event of Accidental Releases of Radioactive Material, A Guide on Emergency Reference Levels of Dose from the Group of Experts Convened under Article 41 of the EURATOM Treaty (1982).

  131. 131.

    Nuclear Power: Principles of Public Health Actions for Accidental Releases (1984).

  132. 132.

    CRAMRA 1988, Article 8.

  133. 133.

    ILC Draft Liability, Article 24, 26, 28.

  134. 134.

    Space Liability Convention 1972, Article II.

  135. 135.

    Chorzow Factory Case (1927) PCIJ ser. A, No. 17, at 47.

  136. 136.

    Rainbow Warrior Case, 82 I.L.R (1990) 500, 575–577.

  137. 137.

    Corfu Channel Case ICJ Rep. 1949, 4, 35.

  138. 138.

    UNCLOS 1982, Article 139, 235.

  139. 139.

    See: Barboza (1990), p. 39.

  140. 140.

    Stockholm Declaration 1972, Principle 22: Rio Declaration 1992, Principle 13.

  141. 141.

    Revised General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations, New York, 2 April 1949, 71 UNTS, 102–127.

  142. 142.

    Barcelona Convention, Article 28.1; Abidjan Convention 1981, Article 24.1; Cartagena Convention 1983, Article 23.1; Nairobi Convention 1985, Article 24.1; Noumea Convention 1986, Article 26.1.

  143. 143.

    Revised General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes (1949), Article 15.1.

  144. 144.

    Pacific Settlement of International Disputes (1907), Article 37.

  145. 145.

    International Court of Justice; Chamber for Environmental Matters, European Court of Justice; Court of First Instance; Human Rights Courts: European Court of Human Rights, Inter-American Court of Human Rights; International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; Special Arbitral Tribunal; United Nations Conference on Environment and Development; non-governmental “international courts.”

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  1. Berlin Center for Caspian Region Studies, Environmental Policy Research Centre (FFU), Berlin, Germany

    Barbara Janusz-Pawletta

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Janusz-Pawletta, B. (2015). Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea. In: The Legal Status of the Caspian Sea. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44730-7_10

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