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Hydrogen

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Silicon

Abstract

Hydrogen, the most abundant substance in the universe, is also omnipresent on earth in the form of water, the most common liquid, following its name “hydro-gen”. Being the first element in the periodic table of elements, hydrogen can show extreme properties. It is the smallest and lightest element of all. Consequently, hydrogen is frequently present as an impurity in crystals of every kind, and so too for silicon. When it is singly ionised only its nucleus, the bare proton, with dimensions of femtometres, is left. Without any core electrons, hydrogen is a unique impurity. The positively charged impurity will seek a position with maximum electron density, or lowest Coulomb potential, in the crystal, creating bonding in a typically ionic manner. In the neutral charge state, the hydrogen atom will have its is electron shell singly occupied. Using a different option, hydrogen can accept a second electron in this low-energy state offered by the is shell, which will become completely filled. This full shell is the typical form realised in covalent bonding. With these contrasting bonding schemes, the bonding of hydrogen in silicon is anticipated to be complex in its appearance. One cannot expect valid bonding models to be based on simple intuitive thinking. Rather, this is the domain of the most advanced theoretical computations. Such calculations, possible nowadays and undoubtedly possible with even greater precision in the future, have already shown the vital role of theory in the understanding of the behaviour of hydrogen in silicon. Maybe theory is having a larger impact than ever before on the physics of defects and impurities in semiconductors, with the obvious exception of shallow substitutional donors and acceptors and the celebrated effective-mass theory. Owing to its electronic structure, hydrogen is a highly reactive impurity. These expectations have been fully confirmed by the observation of interactions of hydrogen with a rich variety of impurities, including shallow and deep states, substitutional and interstitial impurities, and donor, acceptor and amphoteric impurities, from all rows and columns of the periodic table. A very special case is the interaction of hydrogen with itself in forming the H2 molecule. This prototype of covalent bonding creates a molecule without any charge or dipole moment. In this reaction hydrogen has fully passivated its own electrical activity, a feature that hydrogen can also show in interactions with other impurities, such as acceptors and dangling bonds. Several powerful experimental techniques, such as EPR, electron paramagnetic resonance, are not capable of observing passivated products, which creates a handicap for experimental investigations. Though possibly present in great quantities, hydrogen-passivated centres do not have any appreciable effect on material properties and are hard to detect. However, upon heat treatment, e.g. in device processing, passivated complexes may dissociate and reactivate the component impurities. In this way hydrogen can be responsible for unstable properties of silicon.

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  1. General Secretary European Materials Research Society, 23 rue du Loess, 67037, Strasbourg Cedex 2, France

    P. Siffert

  2. Siemens Corporate Research Laboratories, München, Germany

    E. F. Krimmel

  3. J.W. Goethe University, Frankfurt/M, Germany

    E. F. Krimmel

  4. European Materials Research Society, Strasbourg, France

    E. F. Krimmel

  5. Mendelssohnstr. 7, 82049, Pullach/Isartal, Germany

    E. F. Krimmel

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Ammerlaan, C.A.J. (2004). Hydrogen. In: Siffert, P., Krimmel, E.F. (eds) Silicon. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09897-4_14

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