Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Natural Occurrence

  • Chapter
Th Thorium

Part of the book series: Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry / Gmelin Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie ((1053,volume T-h / A-E / A / 1 / 1a))

Abstract

The parts of this chapter give only a brief outline (partly by only a single example) of the geochemical behavior of Th, especially of those facts that are most important in understanding its geological distribution on earth, see Chapter 1.2, pp. 3/7, and its occurrence in minerals, see Chapter 1.3, pp. 7/21. Largely used are the more recent papers, or compilations, or reference/text books.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Rankama, K.; Sahama, T. G. (Geochemistry, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago 1950, pp. 1/912, 570/3).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Röster, H. J.; Lange, H. (Geochemische Tabellen, Verlag Grundstoffind., Leipzig 1965, pp. 1/328).

    Google Scholar 

  3. Mineev, D. A. (Geokhimiya 1960 131/8; Geochem. [USSR] 1960 156 /66, 158 ).

    Google Scholar 

  4. Whittaker, E. J. W.; Muntus, R. (Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 34 [ 1970 ] 945 /56, 952 ).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Green, J. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 64 [1953] (1001/12).

    Google Scholar 

  6. Postnikov, D. V. (in: Garris, M. A.; Yusupov, B. M., Voprosy Izotopnoi Geokhronologii Urala i Vostochnoi Chasti Russkoi Platformy, Ufa 1972, pp. 17/20 from C.A. 82 [1975] No. 127756).

    Google Scholar 

  7. Asimov, I. (J. Chem. Educ. 30 [ 1953 ] 398 ).

    Google Scholar 

  8. Rogers, J. J. W.; Adams, J. A. S. (in: Wedepohl, K. H., Handbook of Geochemistry, Vol. 2, Springer, Berlin—Heidelberg—New York 1969, p. 90-B-1).

    Google Scholar 

  9. Starik, I. E.; Polevaya, N. I. (Tr. Radievogo Inst. Akad. Nauk SSSR 6 [1957] 104/18; C.A. 1958 19407 ).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Wilke, A. (in: Bischoff, G.; Gocht, W., Das Energiehandbuch, 2nd Ed., Vieweg, Braunschweig 1976, pp. 151/73, 151).

    Google Scholar 

  11. De Wijs, H. J. (Geol. Mijnbouw 39 No. 3 [1960] 61/5).

    Google Scholar 

  12. Smolin, P. P. (Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 163 [1965] 212/5; C.A. 63 [ 1965 ] 12921 ).

    Google Scholar 

  13. Whittle, A. W. G. (J. Geol. Soc. Australia 2 [ 1955 ] 21 /45, 22 ).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Fronde’, C. (Proc. Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Geneva 1955 [ 1956 ], Vol. 6, pp. 568/77; Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 300 [1956] 567/79).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Day, F. H. (The Chemical Elements in Nature, Harrap, London 1963, pp. 1/372, 354/61).

    Google Scholar 

  16. Prakash, B.; Kantan, S. R.; Rao, N. K. (STI-PUB-15/22 [1962] 1/56, 12; N.S.A 16 [1962] No. 17974).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Rösler, H. J.; Lange, H. (Geochemische Tabellen, Verlag Grundstoffind., Leipzig 1965, pp. 1/328).

    Google Scholar 

  18. Goldschmidt, V. M. (Geochemistry, Clarendon, Oxford 1954, pp. 1/730).

    Google Scholar 

  19. Turovskii, S. D. (Zap. Kirg. Otd. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. No. 1 [1959] 5/11, 5/6).

    Google Scholar 

  20. Krol, O. F.; Gurkina, T. V. (Tr. Kaz. Nauchn. Issled. Inst. Mineral’n. Syr’ya No. 6 [1961] 117/22; C.A. 59 [1963] 1406 ).

    Google Scholar 

  21. Gabelman, J. W. (AAPG Stud. Geol. No. 13 [1981] 23/36; C.A. 98 [1981] No. 129668).

    Google Scholar 

  22. Krol, O. F. (Geol. Geokhim. Mineral. Mestorozhd. Redk. Elem. Kaz. 1966 60/5; C.A. 67 [1967] No. 45906).

    Google Scholar 

  23. Barretto, P. M. C.; Fujimori, K. (Chem. Geol. 55 [ 1986 ] 297 /312, 311 ).

    Google Scholar 

  24. Rankama, K.; Sahama, T. G. (Geochemistry, Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago 1950, pp. 1/912, 570/3).

    Google Scholar 

  25. Burkser, E. S.; Kornienko, T. G.; Ushakova, A. M.; Faibishenko, I. Ya. (Ukr. Khim. Zh. 25 [1959] 334/6; C.A. 1959 21453 ).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Drozdovskaya, A. A.; Mel’nik, Yu. P. (Pitannya Geokhim. Mineral. Petrogr. 1963 80/8 from C.A. 60 [1964] 15633).

    Google Scholar 

  27. Heier, K. S. (Nature 208 [1965] 479/80).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Lovering, J. F. (Nature 197 [1963] 138/40).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Weaver, B. L.; Tarney, J. (Nature 310 [1984] 575/7).

    Google Scholar 

  30. Taylor, S. R.; McLennan, S. M. (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. [London] A 301 [1981] 381/99, 384/5).

    Google Scholar 

  31. Larimer, J. W. (Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 35 [ 1971 ] 769 /86, 772 ).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Adams, J. A. S. (in: Nuclear Radiation in Geophysics, Academic Press Inc., New York 1962, pp. 1/17 from N.S.A. 17 [1963] No. 3187).

    Google Scholar 

  33. Haack, U. (Earth Planet. Sci. Letters 62 [1983] 360/6).

    Google Scholar 

  34. Lambert, I. B.; Heier, K. S. (Chem. Geol. 3 [1968] 233/8).

    Google Scholar 

  35. Shaw, D. M. (Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31 [1967] 1111/3).

    Google Scholar 

  36. Horn, M. K.; Adams, J. A. S. (Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 30 [ 1966 ] 279 /97, 286 ).

    Google Scholar 

  37. Clark, S. P., Jr.; Peterman, Z. E.; Heier, K. S. (Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. No. 97 [1966] 521/41, 527/34, 536/8).

    Google Scholar 

  38. Wedepohl, K. H. (Handbook of Geochemistry, Vol. 2, Springer, Berlin—HeidelbergNew York 1969, pp. 90-E-1/11, 90-K-1/5, 90-M-1/2).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Lovering, J. F.; Morgan, J. W. (Nature 197 [1963] 138/40).

    Google Scholar 

  40. Wakita, H.; Nagasawa, H.; Ueda, S.; Kuno, H. (Geochem. J. [Tokyo] 1 [1967] 183/98).

    Google Scholar 

  41. T’ung, Li; Chi-Lung, Jao (Dizhi Xuebao 45 No$11 [1965] 82/92 from C.A. 63 [ 1965 ] 8062 ).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Bailey, J. C. (Chem. Geol. 32 [1981] 139/54).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Ronov, A. B.; Bredanova, N. V.; Migdisov, A. A. (Geokhimiya 1988 180/98; Geochem. Intern. 25 No. 9 [1988] 24/42, 30/1).

    Google Scholar 

  44. Anderson, D. L. (J. Geophys. Res. B 88 Suppl. [1983] 41/52, 45; C.A. 100 [ 1984 ] No. 195526).

    Google Scholar 

  45. Taylor, S. R. (Phys. Chem. Earth 6 [ 1965 ] 133 /213, 163 ).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Mineev, D. A. (Geokhimiya 1960 131/8; Geochem. [USSR] 1960 156/66, 158/9).

    Google Scholar 

  47. Wu, T.-W. (Chung-Kuo Ti Chih Hsueh Hui Chuan K’an No. 6 [ 1984 ] 219 /28, 221 ).

    Google Scholar 

  48. Adams, J. A. S.; Osmond, J. K.; Rogers, J. J. W. (Phys. Chem. Earth 3 [1959] 298/348).

    Google Scholar 

  49. Zartman, R. E.; Doe, B. R. (Tectonophysics 75 [1981] 135/62).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Frondel, C. (Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 300 [1956] 567/79; Proc. Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Geneva 1955 [ 1956 ], Vol. 6, pp. 568/77).

    Google Scholar 

  51. Twenhofel, W. S.; Buck, K. L. (Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 300 [1956] 559/66, 562; Proc. Intern. Conf. Peaceful Uses At. Energy, Geneva 1955 [ 1956 ], Vol. 6, pp. 562/7).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Wilke, A. (in: Bischoff, G.; Gocht, W., Das Energiehandbuch, 2nd Ed., Vieweg, Braunschweig 1976, pp. 151/73, 151/2).

    Google Scholar 

  53. Garside, L. A. (Bull. Nevada Bur. Mines Geol. No. 81 [ 1973 ] 1 /121, 4 ).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Nininger, R. D. (Minerals for Atomic Energy, Van Nostrand, New York 1954, pp. 1/367, 87).

    Google Scholar 

  55. Adams, J. A. S. (Phys. Chem. Earth 3 [1959] 298/348).

    Google Scholar 

  56. Staatz, M. H.; Olson, J. C. (Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 820 [ 1973 ] 468 /76, 471 ).

    Google Scholar 

  57. Kelly, F. J. (Inform. Circ. U.S. Bur. Mines No. 8124 [ 1962 ] 1 /38, 5 ).

    Google Scholar 

  58. Smyslov, A. A. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Geofiz. Akad. Nauk SSSR Sibirsk. Otd. No. 286 [1975] 10/18, 272/83, 11; C.A. 84 [1975] No. 138633).

    Google Scholar 

  59. Taylor, S. R. (Phys. Chem. Earth 6 [ 1965 ] 133 /213, 163 ).

    Google Scholar 

  60. Faul, H. (Nuclear Geology, Wiley, New York 1954, pp. 1/414, 84).

    Google Scholar 

  61. Barthel, F.; Mehnert, K. R. (Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Abhandl. 114 [ 1970 ] 18 /47, 24 ).

    Google Scholar 

  62. Bajo, C.; Rybach, L.; Weibel, M. (Chem. Geol. 39 [ 1983 ] 299 /318, 300 ).

    Google Scholar 

  63. Starik, I. E.; Lazarev, K. F. (Radiokhimiya 1 No. 1 [1959] 60/5; Radiochem. [USSR] 1 [1959] 174; C.A. 1959 18763 ).

    Google Scholar 

  64. Baranov, V. I.; Tu, L.-T.; Korobkov, V. I. (Geokhimiya 1962 411/9; Geochem. [USSR] 1962 469/83).

    Google Scholar 

  65. Trofimova, L. A.; Syromyatnikov, N. G.; Ivamova, E. I.; Turov, G. I. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Nauk Akad. Nauk Kaz. SSR No. 31 [1971] 168/77 from C.A. 80 [1974] No. 135861).

    Google Scholar 

  66. Meliksetyan, B. M. (lzv. Akad. Nauk Arm. SSR Geol. Geogr. Nauki 14 No$12 [1961] 21/41, 33, 38; C.A. 55 [ 1961 ] 17397 ).

    Google Scholar 

  67. Leonova, L. L. (Geokhimiya 1962 490/6; Geochem. [USSR] 1962 571/8).

    Google Scholar 

  68. Leonova, L. L.; Rehne, O. S. (Geokhimiya 1964 778/93; Geochem. Intern. 1 [1964] 775/81).

    Google Scholar 

  69. L’vov, B. K. (Tr. Vses. Nauchn. Issled. Geol. Inst. [2] 95 [1963] 13/44, 31, 37/40; C.A. 61 [ 1964 ] 15877 ).

    Google Scholar 

  70. Magdiev, R. A.; Aizenshtat, V. I.; Gor’kovoi, O. P. (Zap. Uzbek. Otd. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. No. 29 [1976] 58/62; C.A. 87 [1977] No. 204538).

    Google Scholar 

  71. Polyakov, A. I.; Kot, G. A. (Geokhimiya 1965 73/85; Geochem. Intern. 2 [1965] 47/58).

    Google Scholar 

  72. Webb, P. X.; Tindle, A. G.; Barritt, S. D. (Geophys. Res. Letters 14 [1987] 299/302).

    Google Scholar 

  73. Goldschmidt, V. M. (Geochemistry, Clarendon, Oxford 1954, pp. 1/730, 427).

    Google Scholar 

  74. Steacy, H. R.; Kaiman, S. (Short Course Handb. Mineral. Assoc. Can. 3 [ 1978 ] 107 /40, 108 ).

    Google Scholar 

  75. Wu, T.-W. (Chung-Kuo Ti Chih Hsueh Hui Chuan K’an No. 6 [ 1984 ] 219 /28, 221 ).

    Google Scholar 

  76. Heinrich, E. W. (Mineralogy and Geology of Radioactive Raw Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York — Toronto — London 1958, pp. 1/654).

    Google Scholar 

  77. Vendel, M. (Magy. Tud. Akad. Musz. Tud. Oszt. Kozl. 23 [1958] 153/93; C.A. 1959 2943. Acta Geol. [Budapest] 5 [1958] 301/433; C.A. 1959 11916. Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Abhandl. 92 [1958] 184/202).

    Google Scholar 

  78. Mineev, D. A. (Geokhimiya 1960 131/8; Geochem. [USSR] 1960 156/66, 157/9).

    Google Scholar 

  79. Baskakov, M. P. (Vopr. Mineralog. Geokhim. Akad. Nauk Uzbek. SSR Inst. Geol. Geofiz. 1964 56/61 from C.A. 62 [ 1965 ] 3840 ).

    Google Scholar 

  80. Vlasov, K. A. (Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 155 [1964] 1091/4; Dokl. Acad. Sci. USSR Earth Sci. Sect. 155 [1964] 162/4).

    Google Scholar 

  81. Povarennykh, A. S. (in: Geokhimiya, Nauka, Moscow 1972, pp. 104/15, 104, 106, 108 ).

    Google Scholar 

  82. Burt, D. M. (Rev. Mineral. 21 [1989] 259/307).

    Google Scholar 

  83. Whittle, A. W. G. (J. Geol. Soc. Australia 2 [1954] 21/45, 36/8).

    Google Scholar 

  84. Whittle, A. W. G. (Bull. Geol. Surv. South Australia No. 30 [ 1954 ] 126 /51, 127 ).

    Google Scholar 

  85. Mitchell, R. S. (Mineral. Record 4 [1973] 177/82).

    Google Scholar 

  86. Bouska, V. (Acta Univ. Carolinae Geol. 1970 No. 3, pp. 143/69).

    Google Scholar 

  87. Mitchell, R. S. (Mineral. Record 4 [1973] 214/23).

    Google Scholar 

  88. [39] Zhang, Peishan; Tao, Kejie (Zhongguo Xitu Xuebao 5 [1987] 1/7 from C.A. 107 [1987] No. 202 264).

    Google Scholar 

  89. Rankama, K. (Isotope Geology, Pergamon, London 1954, pp. 1/535, 125/9; Progress in Isotope Geology, Interscience, New York—London 1963, pp. 1/705, 63/80).

    Google Scholar 

  90. Pachadzhanov, D. N.; Bandurkin, G. A. (Izv. Akad. Nauk Tadzh. SSR Otd. Geol. Khim. Tekhn. Nauk 1963 40/7; C.A. 61 [1964] 1615 ).

    Google Scholar 

  91. Lipova, L. M. (Geokhimiya 1966 729/33; Geochem. Intern. 3 [ 1966 ] 549 ).

    Google Scholar 

  92. Polezhaev, Yu. M. (Geokhimiya 1974 1648/53; Geochem. Intern. 11 [1974] 1157/61).

    Google Scholar 

  93. Ewing, R. C. (Ceram. Glass Radioact. Waste Forms 1977 139/46; C.A. 90 [1978] No. 30882).

    Google Scholar 

  94. Belyaeva, I. D. (in: Semenov, E. I.; Lebedeva, S. I. Mikrodiagnostika Redkometal’nykh Mineralov, Nauka, Moscow 1979, pp. 186/90).

    Google Scholar 

  95. Ewing, R. C.; Haaker, R. F. (NUREG-CP-0005 [1979] 651/75 from C.A. 92 [1980] No. 44745).

    Google Scholar 

  96. Yada, K.; Tanji, T.; Sunagawa, I. (Phys. Chem. Minerals 7 [1981] 47/52).

    Google Scholar 

  97. Headley, T. J.; Ewing, R. C.; Haaker, R. F. (Nature 293 [1981] 449/50).

    Google Scholar 

  98. Karioris, F. G.; Gowda, K. A.; Cartz, L.; Labbe, J. C. (J. Nucl. Mater. 108/109 [1982] 748/50; C.A. 97 [1982] No. 135495).

    Google Scholar 

  99. Ewing, R. C.; Chakoumakos, B. C.; Lumpin, G. R.; Murakami, T. (MRS Bull. 12 No. 4 [1987] 58/66; C.A. 107 [1987] No. 185301).

    Google Scholar 

  100. Noddack, W.; Jakobi, R. (Z. Anorg. Allgem. Chem. 284 [1956] 208/33, 210/3).

    Google Scholar 

  101. Ruh, R.; Wadsley, A. D. (Acta Cryst. 21 [1966] 794/8).

    Google Scholar 

  102. Pyatenko, Yu. A. (Geokhimiya 1970 1077/83; Geochem. Intern. 7 [1970] 758/63).

    Google Scholar 

  103. Sidorenko, G. A. (Rentgenogr. Mineral. Syr’ya No. 1 [1959/62] 108/12 from C.A. 59 [1963] 8soba00010002931214).

    Google Scholar 

  104. Kurath, S. F. (Am. Mineralogist 42 [1957] 91/9).

    Google Scholar 

  105. Pabst, A. (Am. Mineralogist 37 [1952] 137/57, 137/42).

    Google Scholar 

  106. Frondel, J. W.; Fleischer, M.; Jones, R. S. (Geol. Surv. Bull. [U.S.] No. 1250 [1967] 1/69).

    Google Scholar 

  107. Strunz, H.; Tennyson, C. (Mineralogische Tabellen, 6th Ed., Geest and Portig, Leipzig 1977, pp. 1/621).

    Google Scholar 

  108. Fleischer, M. (Glossary of Mineral Species, 5th Ed., Mineral. Record Inc., Tucson 1987, pp. 1/227).

    Google Scholar 

  109. Chistyakova, M. B. (Tr. Mineral. Muzeya Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 23 [1974] 113/76, 138/9).

    Google Scholar 

  110. Styles, M. T.; Young, B. R. (Mineral. Mag. 47 [1983] 41/6).

    Google Scholar 

  111. Parker, R. L.; Sharp, W. N. (Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 649 [ 1970 ] 1 /24, 16 ).

    Google Scholar 

  112. Vlasov, K. A. (Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Rare Elements and Genetic Types of Their Deposits, Vol. 2, Israel Progr. Sci. Transl., Jerusalem 1968, pp. 1/916 [Russian original, Moscow 1966]).

    Google Scholar 

  113. Semenov, E. I. (Tipokhimizm Mineralov Shchelochnykh Massivov, Nedra, Moscow 1977, pp. 1/119).

    Google Scholar 

  114. Haaker, R. F.; Ewing, R. C. (Sci. Basis Nucl. Waste Management 2 [1980] 281/8, 284/5).

    Google Scholar 

  115. Kudrina, M. A. (Mineral’n, Syr’e Vses. Nauchn. Issled. Inst. Mineral’n. Syr’ya No$17 [1963] 108/15 from C.A. 59 [ 1963 ] 15070 ).

    Google Scholar 

  116. Kukharenko, A. A.; Orlova, M. P., Bulakh, A. G.; et al. (Kaledonskii Kompleks Ul’traosnovnykh, Shchelochnykh Porod i Karbonatitov Kol’skogo Poluostrova i Severnoi Karelii, Nedra, Moscow 1965, pp. 1/772, 357).

    Google Scholar 

  117. Borodin, L. S.; Nazarenko, I. I. (Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 115 [1957] 783/6; Dokl. Acad. Sci. USSR Earth Sci. Sect. 112/117 [1957] 745/8).

    Google Scholar 

  118. Gold, D. P. (Intern. Mineral. Assoc. Papers Proc. 4th Gen. Meeting, New Delhi 1964 [1966], pp. 109/25, 122).

    Google Scholar 

  119. Yusuf, S.; Saraswat, A. C. (Current Sci. [India] 46 [1977] 703/4 from C.A. 88 [1978] No. 39959).

    Google Scholar 

  120. Petruk, W.; De’Alton, R. O. (Can. Mineralogist 13 [1975] 282/5).

    Google Scholar 

  121. Bagdasarov, Yu. A. (Zap. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. 98 [1969] 395/406).

    Google Scholar 

  122. Wimmenauer, W. (Eur. At. Energy Community — EURATOM Rept. No. 1827 [ 1964 ] 17 /30, 26 ).

    Google Scholar 

  123. Krivokoneva, G. K.; Sidorenko, G. A. (Geokhimiya 1971 187/200; Geochem. Intern. 8 [1971] 113/22, 114/5).

    Google Scholar 

  124. Bonshtedt-Kupletskaya, E. M. (Zap. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. 95 [1966] 134/44).

    Google Scholar 

  125. Gatehouse, B. M.; Grey, I. E.; Kelly, P. R. (Am. Mineralogist 64 [1979] 1010/7).

    Google Scholar 

  126. Stupp, H. D. (Diss. Univ. Köln 1984, pp. 1/280, Table Anhang A-3).

    Google Scholar 

  127. Eliseeva, O. P. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Rudn. Mestorozhd. Petrogr. Mineral. Geokhim. No. 27 [ 1960 ] 78 /91, 89 ).

    Google Scholar 

  128. Kudrin, V. A.; Kudrina, M. A.; Shuriga, T. N. (Geol. Mestorozhd. Redk. Elem. No. 25 [ 1965 ] 1 /148, 85 ).

    Google Scholar 

  129. Ellsworth, H. V. (Can. Geol. Surv. Econ. Geol. Ser. 11 [1932] 1/272, 260/1).

    Google Scholar 

  130. Arkhangel’skaya, V. V. (Redkometal’nye Shchelochnye Kompleksy Yuzhnogo Kraya Sibirskoi Platformy, Nedra, Moscow 1974, pp. 1/128, 40/1).

    Google Scholar 

  131. Cassedanne, J. P.; Baptista, A. (Anais Acad. Brasil. Cienc. 56 [ 1984 ] 71 /83, 73 ).

    Google Scholar 

  132. Makarochkin, B. A.; Es’kova, E. M.; Aleksandrov, V. B. (Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 148 [1963] 179/82; Dokl. Acad. Sci. USSR Earth Sci. Sect. 148 [1963] 93/7).

    Google Scholar 

  133. Butler, J. R.; Hall, R. A. (Mineral. Mag. 32 [ 1960 ] 392 /407, 396 ).

    Google Scholar 

  134. Smorchkov, I. W.; Tseitlin, S. G.; Batyreva, N. N. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Rudn. Mestorozhd. Petrog. Mineral. Geokhim. No. 99 [1963] 60/7).

    Google Scholar 

  135. Kuo, C.-T.; Wang, I.-H.; Wang, H.-C.; Wang, C.-K.; Hou, H.-C. (Diqiu Huaxue 1973 No. 2, pp. 86/92 from Am. Mineralogist 60 [1975] 485 ).

    Google Scholar 

  136. Lisitsina, G. A. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Rudn. Mestorozhd. Petrogr. Mineral. Geokhim. No. 27 [ 1960 ] 66 /77, 71 ).

    Google Scholar 

  137. Povilaitis, M. M.; Varshal, G. M. (Tipomorfizm Miner. 1969 196 /209, 202 ).

    Google Scholar 

  138. Makarochkin, B. A.; Mineev, D. A.; Aleksandrov, V. B. (Tr. Mineral. Muzeya Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 16 [1965] 252/8).

    Google Scholar 

  139. Lovering, T. G. (Econ. Geol. 50 [1955] 186/95).

    Google Scholar 

  140. Van Wambeke, L. (Bull. Soc. Fr. Mineral. Cristallogr. 95 [1972] 98/105).

    Google Scholar 

  141. Frondel, C. (Geol. Surv. Profess. Paper [U.S.] No. 300 [1956] 567/79, 576/7).

    Google Scholar 

  142. Sidorenko, G. A. (Rentgenograficheskii Opredelitel’ Uranovykh i Uransoderzhashchikh Mineralov, Gosgeoltekhizdat, Moscow 1960, pp. 1/116, 35).

    Google Scholar 

  143. Metz, M. C.; Brooking, D. G.; Rosenberg, P. E.; Zartman, R. E. (Econ. Geol. 80 [1985] 394/409).

    Google Scholar 

  144. Kapustin, Yu. L. (Mineralogiya Karbonatitov, Nauka, Moscow 1971, p. 1/286, 184/5).

    Google Scholar 

  145. Smith, W. L.; Smith, J.; Ross, D. R.; Levine, H. (Am. Mineralogist 45 [1960] 92/8).

    Google Scholar 

  146. Efimov, A. F.; Kravchenko, S. M.; Vlasova, E. V. (Tr. Inst. Mineral. Geokhim. Kristallokhim. Redk. Elem. Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 16 [ 1963 ] 141 /75, 173 ).

    Google Scholar 

  147. Ixer, R. A.; Ashworth, J. R.; Pointer, C. M. (Geol. J. 22 [1987] 403/27, 414/5).

    Google Scholar 

  148. Kinnaird, J. A. (J. African Earth Sci. 3 [ 1985 ] 229 /51, 247 ).

    Google Scholar 

  149. Meliksetyan, B. M. (Izv. Akad. Nauk Arm. SSR Geol. Geogr. Nauki 14 No. 2 [ 1961 ] 21 /41, 31 ).

    Google Scholar 

  150. Staatz, M. H. (Econ. Geol. 73 [ 1978 ] 512 /23, 517 ).

    Google Scholar 

  151. Kupriyanova, I. I.; Sidorenko, G. A.; Stolyarova, T. I. (Zap. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. 91 [ 1962 ] 573 /81, 579 ).

    Google Scholar 

  152. Semenov, E. I. (Mater. Mineral. Kol’sk. Poluostrova 1 [1959] 91/101, 97/9).

    Google Scholar 

  153. Sveshnikova, E. V.; Semenov, E. I.; Khomyakov, A. P. (Zaangarskii Shchelochnoi Massiv Ego Porody i Mineraly, Nauka, Moscow 1976, pp. 1/80, 48/9).

    Google Scholar 

  154. Bowie, S. H. U. (Chron. Mines d’Outre-Mer Rech. Min. 27 [1959] 304/8).

    Google Scholar 

  155. Scharm, B.; Burda, J.; Hofreitr, V.; Sulovsky, P.; Scharmova, M. (Casopis Mineral. Geol. 25 [1980] 113/24, 115/6).

    Google Scholar 

  156. Van Wambeke, L. (Am. Mineralogist 56 [1971] 1366/84).

    Google Scholar 

  157. Semenov, E. I. (Tr. Inst. Mineral. Geokhim. Kristallokhim. Redk. Elem. Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 9 [ 1962 ] 36 /54, 48 ).

    Google Scholar 

  158. Bonatti, S. (Atti 1st Cony. Geol. Nucl., Rome 1955, pp. 17/21; N.S.A. 14 [ 1960 ] No. 3701).

    Google Scholar 

  159. Graeser, S.; Schwander, H. (Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt. 67 [1987] 103/13).

    Google Scholar 

  160. Stussi, J. M. (Compt. Rend. D 271 [1970] 2255/8).

    Google Scholar 

  161. Urunbaev, K. U. (Zap. Uzbek. Otd. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. No. 23 [ 1970 ] 146 /51, 149 ).

    Google Scholar 

  162. Yushkin, N. P.; Fishman, M. V.; Goldin, B. A. (Tr. Akad. Nauk SSSR Komi Filial Inst. Geol. No. 9 [ 1968 ] 143 /62, 145 ).

    Google Scholar 

  163. Willgallis, A. (Neues Jahrb. Mineral. Abhandl. 114 [1970] 48/60).

    Google Scholar 

  164. Stupp, H. D.; Saager, R.; Thiel, K.; Vorwerk, R. (Appt. Mineral. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr. Appl. Mineral. Minerals Ind., Los Angeles 1984 [1985], pp. 1109/27).

    Google Scholar 

  165. Smits, G. (MINTEK-M 278 [1987] 1/41; C.A. 107 [1987] No. 10615).

    Google Scholar 

  166. Lang, A. H. (Trans. Can. Inst. Mining Met. 53 [1950] 277/84).

    Google Scholar 

  167. Dutra, C. V. (Bot. Soc. Brasil. Geol. 10 [1961] 25/37 from C.A. 56 [ 1962 ] 4396 ).

    Google Scholar 

  168. Baretto, G. R.; Fujimori, K. (Chem. Geol. 55 [1986] 297/312).

    Google Scholar 

  169. Parslow, G. R.; Brandstätter, F.; Kurat, G.; Thomas, D. J. (Can. Mineralogist 23 [1985] 543/51).

    Google Scholar 

  170. Norton, D. A. (Am. Mineralogist 42 [1957] 492/505).

    Google Scholar 

  171. Glatthaar, C. W.; Feather, C. E. (Appt. Mineral. Proc. 2nd Intern. Congr. Appl. Mineral. Minerals Ind., Los Angeles 1984 [1985], pp. 617/28).

    Google Scholar 

  172. Speer, J. A.; Solberg, T. N.; Becker, S. W. (Econ. Geol. 76 [1981] 2162/75).

    Google Scholar 

  173. Griffin, W. L.; Nilssen, B.; Jensen, B. B. (Norsk Geol. Tidsskr. 59 [1979] 265/71).

    Google Scholar 

  174. Svyashin, N. V. (Tr. Inst. Geol. Ural’sk. Filial Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 70 [1965] 239/44).

    Google Scholar 

  175. Voloshin, A. V. (Izv. Akad. Nauk Kaz. SSR Ser. Geol. 23 No. 6 [1966] 78/81; C.A. 66 [1967] No. 87465).

    Google Scholar 

  176. Vlasov, K. A.; Kuz’menko, M. V.; Es’kova, E. M. (Lovozerskii Shchelochnoi Massiv, Akad. Nauk SSSR, Moscow 1959, pp. 1/623, 427/9).

    Google Scholar 

  177. Kapustin, Yu. L. (Nov. Dannye Mineral. No. 33 [1986] 53/63, 60/1).

    Google Scholar 

  178. Crook, W. W., III; Ewing, R. C.; Ehlmann, A. J. (Am. Mineralogist 63 [1978] 754/6).

    Google Scholar 

  179. Dusmatov, V. D.; Efimov, A. F.; Semenov, E. I. (Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 153 [1963] 913/5; Dokl. Acad. Sci. USSR Earth Sci. Sect. 153 [1963] 154/6).

    Google Scholar 

  180. Aleksandrova, I. T.; Sidorenko, G. A. (Geol. Mestorozhd. Redk. Elem. No. 26 [1966] 66/90, 80/1).

    Google Scholar 

  181. Harada, Z. (J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Imp. Univ. IV 3 [1936] 221/362, 303/4).

    Google Scholar 

  182. Ganzeeva, L. V. (Redk. Elem. Syr’e Ekon. No. 7 [ 1972 ] 112 /24, 123 ).

    Google Scholar 

  183. Kudrina, M. A.; Kudrin, V. A. (Geol. Mestorozhd. Redk. Elem. No. 9 [1961] 120/6; C.A. 56 [ 1962 ] 6935 ).

    Google Scholar 

  184. Kawai, T. (Nippon Kagaku Zasshi 81 [1960] 1220/1 from C.A. 1961 7173).

    Google Scholar 

  185. Rimsaite, J. (Geol. Surv. Can. Paper No. 81–23 [ 1982 ] 19 /30, 22 ).

    Google Scholar 

  186. Skorobogatova, N. V.; Kostin, N. E.; Sidorenko, G. A. (Geol. Mestorozhd. Red. Elem. No. 26 [1966] 106/17, 110/1).

    Google Scholar 

  187. Oftedahl, J. (Tschermaks Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt. [3] 10 [1965] 125/9).

    Google Scholar 

  188. Semenov, E. I.; Kazakova, M. E. (in: Semenov, E. I., Mineralogiya Shchelochnogo Massiva Ilimausak (Yuzhnaya Grenlandiya), Nauka, Moscow 1969, pp. 42/71, 47, 52/3).

    Google Scholar 

  189. Slepnev, Yu. S. (Tr. Inst. Mineral. Geokhim. Kristallokhim. Redk. Elem. Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 13 [1962] 1/151, 84, 134 ).

    Google Scholar 

  190. Leonova, L. L. (Geokhimiya 1962 490/6; Geochem. [USSR] 1962 571/8).

    Google Scholar 

  191. Le Van Tiét; Stussi, J. M. (Sci. Terre 18 [1973] 353/79).

    Google Scholar 

  192. Kumskova, N. M.; Khvostova, V. A. (Geokhimiya 1964660/71; Geochem. Intern. 1 [1964] 676/86).

    Google Scholar 

  193. Lacroix, A. (Minéralogie de Madagascar, Vol. 1, Challamel, Paris 1922, pp. 1/624, 451/3).

    Google Scholar 

  194. Azimov, P. T.; Smirnova, S. K. (in: Badalov, S. T.; Moisseva, M. I., Mineraly Uzbekistana, Vol. 3, Fan, Tashkent 1976, pp. 129/33; C.A. 91 [1979] No. 110251).

    Google Scholar 

  195. Khvostova, V. A. (Tr. Inst. Mineral. Geokhim. Kristallokhim. Redk. Elem. Akad. Nauk SSSR No. 11 [1962] 1/120, 13/6, 24/36, 39/40, 64, 67 ).

    Google Scholar 

  196. Gogel’, G. N. (Aktsessornye Mineraly Granitoidov Tsentral’nogo Kazakhstana, Nauka, Alma-Ata 1966, pp. 1/181, 94/100).

    Google Scholar 

  197. Oberli, F.; Sommerauer, J.; Steiger, R. H. (Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt. 61 [1981] 323/48, 330/2).

    Google Scholar 

  198. Zykov, S. I.; Stupnikova, N. I.; Pavlenko, A. S. (Geokhimiya 1961 547/60; Geochem. [USSR] 1961 581 /95, 588 ).

    Google Scholar 

  199. Rodygina, V. G. (in: Tatarinov, P. M.; et al., Mineraly i Paragenezisy Mineralov Mag-maticheskikh i Metasomaticheskikh Gornykh Porod, Nauka, Leningrad 1974, pp. 127/32; C.A. 84 [1976] No. 108487).

    Google Scholar 

  200. Himmelberg, G. R.; Miller, T. P. (Am. Mineralogist 65 [1980] 1020/5).

    Google Scholar 

  201. Es’kova, E. M.; Semenov, E. I.; Khomyakov, A. P.; Kazakova, M. E.; Sidorenko, O. V. (Zap. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. 103 [1974] 571/5).

    Google Scholar 

  202. Es’kova, E. M.; Semenov, E. I.; Khomyakov, A. P.; Kazakova, M. E.; Shumskaya, N. G. (Zap. Vses. Mineral. Obshch. 103 [1974] 338/41).

    Google Scholar 

  203. Pletneva, N. I.; Denisov, A. P.; Elina, N. A. (Mater. Mineral. Kol’sk. Poluostrova 8 [1971] 176/9).

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Frankfurt am Main, Germany

    Wolfgang Töpper

Authors
  1. Reiner Ditz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Bärbel Sarbas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peter Schubert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Wolfgang Töpper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Frankfurt am Main, Germany

    Wolfgang Töpper

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1990 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ditz, R., Sarbas, B., Schubert, P., Töpper, W. (1990). Natural Occurrence. In: Töpper, W. (eds) Th Thorium. Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry / Gmelin Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, vol T-h / A-E / A / 1 / 1a. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08910-1_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-08910-1_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-662-08912-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-08910-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation