Abstract
Materials are made of atoms. Knowledge of how atoms are arranged into crystal structures and microstructures is the foundation on which we build our understanding of the synthesis, structure and properties of materials. There are many ways for measuring chemical compositions of materials, and methods based on inner-shell electron spectroscopies are covered in this book. The larger emphasis of the book is on measuring spatial arragements of atoms in the range from 10-8 to 10-4 cm, bridging from the unit cell of the crystal to the microstructure of the material. For measurements over this broad spatial scale there are many different experimental techniques, but most of them involve diffraction. To date, most of our knowledge about the spatial arrangements of atoms in materials has been gained from diffraction experiments. In a diffraction experiment, an incident wave is directed into a material and a detector is typically moved about to record the directions and intensities of the outgoing diffracted waves.
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Further Reading
Leonid V. Azároff: Elements of X-Ray Crystallography, (McGraw-Hill, New York 1968), reprinted by TechBooks, Fairfax, VA.
Bernard D. Cullity: Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA 1978).
International Tables for X-ray Crystallography, (Kynock Press, Birmingham, England, 1952-).
Harold P. Klug and Leroy E. Alexander: X-Ray Diffraction Procedures, (Wiley-Interscience, New York 1974).
L. H. Schwartz and J. B. Cohen: Diffraction from Materials, (Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1987).
B. E. Warren: X-Ray Diffraction (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA 1969).
Crystal structure determination by single crystal x-ray diffraction methods is a large topic, and much of it is beyond the scope of the present book. This subject is covered in books by M. F. C. Ladd and R. A. Palmer: Structure Determination by X-ray Crystallography (Plenum Press, New York, NY 1993)
George H. Stout and Lyle H. Jensen: X-ray Structure Determination: A Practical Guide (Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY 1989).
References and Figures
International Centre for Diffraction Data, 12 Campus Boulevard Newtown Square, PA 19073–3273 USA. http://www.icdd.com/
J. P. Quintana and J. B. Cohen: ‘Local Atomic Structure in Hg0.80Cd0.20Te and Hg0.725Cd0.275Te’, In: Diffusion in Ordered Alloys, ed. by B. Fultz, R. W. Cahn, D. Gupta (TMS, Warrendale, PA 1993).
H. G. J. Moseley: Philos. Mag. 27, 713 (1914).
F. Richtmyer and E. Kennard: Introduction to Modern Physics (McGraw-Hill, New York 1947).
A partial list of web sites for synchrotron sources includes (prefixed with http://): aps.anl.gov, www.esrf.fr, www.spring8.or.jp, www.nsls.bnl.gov, www-ssrl.slac.stanford.edu/welcome.html, www.bessy.de, pfwww.kek.jp, srs.dl.ac.uk, www-hasylab.desy.de, ssrc.inp.nsk.su
Leonid V. Azároff: Elements of X-Ray Crystallography, McGraw-Hill, New York (1968). Figure reprinted with the courtesy of TechBooks, Fairfax, VA.
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Materials Program, Bldg. 202, Rm 204, Gaithersburg, MD 20899. http://ts.nist.gov/srm
J. Nelson and D. Riley: Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) 57, 160 (1945).
Harold P. Klug and Leroy E. Alexander: X-Ray Diffraction Procedures, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1974). Figure reprinted with the courtesy of John Wiley-Interscience.
S. J. L. Billinge and M. F. Thorpe, Eds.: Local Structure From Diffraction (Plenum Press, New York 1998).
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Fultz, B., Howe, J.M. (2001). Diffraction and the X-Ray Powder Diffractometer. In: Transmission Electron Microscopy and Diffractometry of Materials. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-04516-9_1
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