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Digital Labour Platforms: Dusk or Dawn of Labour Law?

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New Forms of Employment

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to outline the problems faced by individual and collective labour law in face of new forms of work organization such as digital platforms. Digital platforms do not constitute uniform silos separate from other branches of economy. On the contrary, there are significant differences in the way platforms are organized and managed. Platform workers share common interests related to, for example, the setting of remuneration or working conditions, but the possibility of collective bargaining is in practice significantly reduced. Regulations aimed at implementing the protective function of labour law, e.g. in the sphere of working time, are also difficult to apply to this group of workers. This makes platform workers vulnerable to precarization and clearly demonstrated the need of labour law to develop and adapt in a way that allows it to embrace wider group of workers.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    These include i.a. interim management, casual work, voucher based work, portfolio work, collaborative employment and, last but not least, ICT based work and crowd employment. Eurofound. 2015. New forms of employment. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, pp. 1–2. Mangan, David. Labour Law: The Medium and the Message. In Game Changers in Labour Law: Shaping the Future of Work, Eds. F. Hendrickx and V. de Stefano, Deventer: Wolters Kluwer 2018.

  2. 2.

    Gérard Valenduc, and P. Vendramin, 2016. Work in the digital economy: sorting the old from the new. Brussels: ETUI, p. 46; Eurofund, 2018. Automation, digitalisation and platforms: implications for work environment. Luxembourg: Publication office of the European Union, p. 9.

  3. 3.

    OECD. 2015. OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2015. Paris: OECD Publishing, p. 16. See also OECD, 2014 Measuring the Digital Economy: A New Perspective. OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264221796-en; Janine Berg, M. Furrer, E. Harmon, U. Rani, M. Six Silberman. 2011. Digital labour platforms and the future of work. Towards decent work in the online world, Geneva: International Labour Office, p. 6; Valerio De Stefano. 2018. “Negotiating the algorithm”: Automation, artificial intelligence and labour protection. Geneva: International Labour Office, p. 5.

  4. 4.

    Eurofund (2018, p. 15).

  5. 5.

    Florian Alexander Schmidt. 2017. Crowd Design: From Tools for Empowerment to Platform Capitalism, Basel: Walter de Gruyter GmbH, p. 26.

  6. 6.

    Christophe Degryse. 2016. Digitalisation of the economy and its impact on labour markets. Brussels: ETUI, p. 35.

  7. 7.

    Eurofund (2018, p. 18); Sangeet Paul Choudary. 2018. The architecture of digital labour platforms: Policy recommendations on platform design for worker well-being, Geneva: International Labour Office, pp. 17–18.

  8. 8.

    Valerio de Stefano 2016, The rise of “just in time workforce”: on demand work, crowdwork and labour protection in “gig economy”. Geneva: International Labour Office, p. 6.

  9. 9.

    Valerio de Stefano (2016, p. 8).

  10. 10.

    Berg et al. (2011, pp. 7–9).

  11. 11.

    Jan Popma. 2013. The Janus face of the ‘New Ways of Work’, Rise, risks and regulation of nomadic work. Brussels: ETUI, p. 7.

  12. 12.

    Lee, K.; Kusbit, D.; Metsky, E.; Dabbish, L. 2015. Working with machines: The impact of algorithmic and data-driven management on human workers, Proceedings of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI), Seoul, 18–23 Apr, pp. 1603–1612. Quated by: Janine Berg et al. 2011 p. 9.

  13. 13.

    Mareike Möhlmann and Lior Zalmanson. 2017. Hands on the wheel: Navigating algorithmic management and Uber drivers’ autonomy, proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS 2017), December 10–13, Seoul, South Kore P. 5; Choudary (2018, p. 12).

  14. 14.

    de Stefano (2016, p. 21).

  15. 15.

    de Stefano (2016, p. 1); Eurofound (2015, p. 107).

  16. 16.

    Eurofound (2015, p. 73).

  17. 17.

    de Stefano (2016, p. 1).

  18. 18.

    Among the best research ones are models applied by the Amazon Mechanical Turk (AMT) and Uber. For more details see; Jeremias Prassl and Martin Risak. 2017. Uber, Taskrabbit, and Co: Platforms as Employers? Rethinking the labour Law of Crowdwork. In The new foundations of Labour Law. Eds. Kerstin Ahlberg, Niklas Bruun. Frankfurt am Main, New York: Peter Lang, pp. 97–126; Miriam A. Cherry. 2016. Beyond Misclassification: The Digital Transformation of Work. No 37 vol. 3 Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal; Miriam A. Cherry 2010, A Taxonomy of Virtual Work. Georgia Law Review. SSRN, https://ssrn.com/abstract=1649055. Accessed 2 June 2019; Lilly Irani, Michael S. Silberman. 2013. Turkopticon: Interrupting Worker Invisibility in Amazon Mechanical Turk’, http://crowdsourcing-class.org/readings/downloads/ethics/turkopticon.pdf. Accessed 2 June 2019.

  19. 19.

    J. Berg et al. (2011, pp. 3–4).

  20. 20.

    The expression was used by Jeff Bezos in the Opening Keynote at 2006 MIT Emerging Technologies Conference. Accessed: http://video.mit.edu/watch/opening-keynote-and-keynote-interview-with-jeff-bezos-9197/ Irani and Silberman (2013, p. 612).

  21. 21.

    EU-OSHA. 2015. A review of the future of work: online labour exchanges or “crowdsourcing”: implications for occupational safety and health. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work https://osha.europa.eu/en/tools-and-publications/publications/future-work-crowdsourcing/view. Accessed 2 July 2019; Valenduc and Vendramin 2016, p. 37; Degryse (2016, pp. 44–47); Eurofound (2015, p. 137).

  22. 22.

    European Parliament. 2017. The Social Protection of Workers in the Platform Economy, Study for the EMPL Committee, European Parlianemt, http://www.europarl.europa.eu/supporting-analyses Accessed 2 July 2019, p. 72.

  23. 23.

    De Stefano (2016, pp. 10–13); Antonio Aloisi 2016. Commoditised Workers. Case Study Research on Labour Law Issues Arising from a Set of “On-Demand/Gig Economy” Platforms, Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal vol. 37, no 3, p. 668; Degryse (2016, p. 31).

  24. 24.

    Aloisi (2016, p. 674).

  25. 25.

    Prassl and Risak (2017, p. 108).

  26. 26.

    Eurofound (2015, p. 110); Sally-Anne Barnes, Anne Green and Maria de Hoyos 2013. CrowdEmploy. Crowdsourcing Case Studies: An Empirical Investigation into the Impact of Crowdsourcing on Employability. Luxembourg: European Commission, p. 31.

  27. 27.

    Jeremias Prassl. 2018. Humans as a Service: The Promise and Perils of Work in the Gig Economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 5; Gregory D. Saxton, Onook Oh, Rajiv Kishore 2013. Rules of Crowdsourcing: Models, Issues, and Systems of Control. Information Systems Management vol. 1, no. 30, p. 8.

  28. 28.

    Janine Berg et al. (2011, p. 36).

  29. 29.

    Janine Berg et al. (2011, p. 42); European Parliament (2017, p. 48).

  30. 30.

    Prassl and Risak (2017, p. 2).

  31. 31.

    Alek Felstiner 2011. Working the Crowd: Employment and Labor Law in the Crowdsourcing Industry, Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law, Vol. 32, No. 1, p. 162.

  32. 32.

    Aloisi (2016, pp. 667–669).

  33. 33.

    Felstiner (2011, pp. 174–179 and 189–196). Prassl (2018, p. 96).

  34. 34.

    L. Irani, M.S. Silberman, Turkopticon… s. 613 oraz Felstiner (2011, p. 147).

  35. 35.

    Felstiner (2011, 149).

  36. 36.

    Article 1 of the ILO Home Work Convention, 1996 (No. 177) Convention concerning Home Work (Entry into force: 22 Apr 2000) Adoption: Geneva, 83rd ILC session (20 Jun 1996). The convention i salso accompanied by Recommendation Home Work Recommendation, 1996 (No. 184) Recommendation concerning Home WorkAdoption: Geneva, 83rd ILC session (20 Jun 1996). The convention was ratified only by Albania, Argentina, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Tajikistan.

  37. 37.

    Zbignew Góral. 2011. Commentary to Article 2 of the law on employment promotion and labour market institutions. In. Ustawa o promocji zatrudnienia i instytucjach rynku pracy Ed. Z. Góral, Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer, p. 71.

  38. 38.

    Teresa Wyka 2015. Zatrudnienie niepracownicze na podstawie umowy o pracę nakładczą. In: System prawa pracy, Tom VII Zatrudnienie niepracownicze. Ed. Krzysztof W Baran. Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer, p. 217.

  39. 39.

    Izabela Florczak. 2017. Status prawny osób swiadczacych prace w ramach umownego zatrudnienia nietypowego, Łódź: Wydawnictwo uniwersytetu Łódkiego, p. 43.

  40. 40.

    Various online tools such as blogs, websites etc. used by platform workers in order to share information on gig-providers, insurance, useful apps, provide instruction and, ultimately, increase bargaining power. (Aloisi (n 9) 680).

  41. 41.

    Joanna Unterschütz, Digital work – real bargaining: how can the sustainability of social dialogue be ensured in the digital era? In. Precarious Work. The Challenge for Labour Law in Europe. Eds. J. Kenner, I. Florczak and M. Otto, Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing; see also Berg et al. 2011, pp. 220–239.

  42. 42.

    https://turkopticon.ucsd.edu Irani and Silberman (n 9) 616; Degryse (n 5) 37.

  43. 43.

    Degryse (2016, p. 57).

  44. 44.

    http://faircrowd.work, accessed 10 July 2019.

  45. 45.

    UILTuCS, ‘Fattorini e gig economy: primo incontro al Comune di Milano’ https://uiltucs.it/fattorini-e-gig-economy-primo-incontro-al-comune-di-milano/ accessed 10 July 2018; UILTuCS, ‘Gig economy, a Milano la UILTuCS incontra i lavoratori delle app’ https://uiltucs.it/gig-economy-a-milano-la-uiltucs-incontra-i-lavoratori-delle-app/ accessed 10 July 2019.

  46. 46.

    See e.g. Brighton Deliveroo Strike leads to unionisation https://iwgbclb.wordpress.com/2017/02/07/brighton-deliveroo-strike-leads-to-unionisation/ accessed 2 June 2019; ‘UberEats & Deliveroo Update’ https://iwgbclb.wordpress.com/2016/09/07/ubereats-deliveroo-update/ accessed 10 July 2019.

  47. 47.

    Prassl 2018, p. 113; Independent Workers Union of Great Britain How we Began” < https://iwgb.org.uk/how-we-began/> accessed 31 May 2019.

  48. 48.

    Betriebsrat für Fahrradzustelldienst foodora http://www.vida.at/cms/S03/S03_0.a/1342577497037/home/artikel/betriebsrat-fuer-fahrradzustelldienst-foodora accessed 18.06.2018.

  49. 49.

    Up to date description of varus forms of worker’s organisation in: Hannah Johnston and Chris Land-Kazlauskas. 2018. Organizing on-demand: Representation,voice, and collective bargaining in the gig economy, Geneva: International Labour Office.

  50. 50.

    Aloisi 2015, p. 681. Seattle App Based Drivers Association, http://www.abdaseattle.org accessed 18.06.2018. Hilary Osborne, Sarah Butler, Collective action via social media brings hope to gig economy workers, The Guardian, August 19, sec. Business. https://www.theguardian.com/money/2016/aug/19/collective-action-via-social-media-bringshope-to-gig-economy-workers, Accessed 2 June 2019.

  51. 51.

    Kurt Vandaele. 2018. Will trade unions survive in the platform economy? Emerging patterns of platform workers’ collective voice and representation in Europe, Brussels: ETUI, p. 17.

  52. 52.

    www.er.cgil.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeAttachment.php/L/…/E/pdf Accessed 2 June 2019.

  53. 53.

    See also: ETUC online survey on Fair Digitalisation and Workers Participation and other activities in the context of the project “Workers Participation – A key to Fair Digitalisation” (VS/2014/0490) Eckhart Voss and Hannah Reide 2018, Digitalisation and workers participation: what trade unions, company level workers and online platform workers in europe think, Brussels: ETUC; Unterschütz 2019.

  54. 54.

    Choudary (2018, p. 39).

  55. 55.

    Choudary (2018, p. 39).

  56. 56.

    Similar proceeding was initiated by Lyft drivers. A. Aloisi (2016, pp. 675–676); Degryse (2016, p. 36).

  57. 57.

    De Stefano (2016, p. 15).

  58. 58.

    http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/GMB-wins-uber-case. Jeff Kenner 2019, Uber drivers are ‘workers’: the expanding scope of the ‘worker’ concept in the UK’s gig economy. In. Precarious Work. The Challenge for Labour Law in Europe. Eds. J. Kenner, I. Florczak and M. Otto, Cheltenham, UK • Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 195–215.

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    http://www.bollettinoadapt.it/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/7782018.pdf Accessed 2 June 2019.

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    http://studiolegalemeiffret.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/sentenza-foodora-appello.pdf Accessed 2 June 2019.

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    Arrêt n°1737 du 28 novembre 2018 (17-20.079) - Cour de cassation - Chambre sociale- ECLI:FR:CCASS:2018:SO01737 https://www.courdecassation.fr/jurisprudence_2/chambre_sociale_576/1737_28_40778.html Accessed 2 June 2019.

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    Cour d’appel de Paris, 10 January 2019, RG 18/08357. https://revuefiduciaire.grouperf.com/plussurlenet/complements/CA-Paris-UBER-10-01-2019.pdf Accessed 2 June 2019.

  63. 63.

    CJEU Case C‑434/15 Asociación Profesional Elite Taxi v. Uber Systems Spain SLI [2017] ECLI:EU:C:2017:981.

  64. 64.

    CJEU Case C‑434/15 para 40.

  65. 65.

    Ibidem, para 49.

  66. 66.

    Ibidem, para 52.

  67. 67.

    Ibidem, para 54.

  68. 68.

    ‘In return for the employer’s control over in return for the employer’s control over her workers, the risks and cost of economic insecurity are channelled so as to impose obligations on the party with superior resources’, Simon Deakin and Frank Wilkinson. 2005. The Law of the Labour Market: Industrialisation, Employment, and Legal Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 109.

  69. 69.

    Loi no 2016-1088 du 8 août 2016 relative au travail, à la modernisation du dialogue social et à la sécurisation des parcours professionnels (JORF n 0184 du 9 août 2016 texte n 3) NOR: ETSX1604461L, ELI: https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/loi/2016/8/8/ETSX1604461L/jo/texte (accessed 2 June 2019).

  70. 70.

    http://www.consiglio.regione.lazio.it/consiglio-regionale/?vw=leggiregionalidettaglio&id=9349&sv=vigente.

  71. 71.

    Martin Risak and Thomas Dullinger 2018, The concept of “worker”. Brussels: ETUI, p. 46. Case C-216/15 Betriebsrat der Ruhrlandklinik ECLI:EU:C:2016:883, paras 36–37.

  72. 72.

    European Commission, Consultation Document. Second phase consultation of Social Partners under Article 154 TFEU on a possible revision of the Written Statement Directive (Directive 91/533/EEC) in the framework of the European Pillar of Social Rights {SWD(2017) 301 final} (2017) 6121, 10–11.

  73. 73.

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CONSIL:ST_8441_2019_INIT&from=EN Accessed 2 June 2019.

  74. 74.

    Article 1 of the proposed convention. International Labour Office, 86th Session Geneva, June 1998, Report V (2B) Contract labour Fifth item on the agenda https://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ilc86/rep-v2b.htm Accessed 2 June 2019.

  75. 75.

    Anna Musiała. 2011. Zatrudnienie niepracownicze. Warszawa: Difin, p. 24.

  76. 76.

    ILO Recommendation No. 198 concerning the employment relationshipAdoption: Geneva, 95th ILC session (15 Jun 2006).

  77. 77.

    Art. 16 of the ILO Recommendation no 198.

  78. 78.

    Alain Supiot. 2001. Beyond employment. Changes in Work and the Future of Labour in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 22.

  79. 79.

    Supiot (2001, p. 22).

  80. 80.

    Supiot (2001, p. 23).

  81. 81.

    Noah D. Zatz. 2011. The impossibility of work law. In. The Idea of Labour Law. Ed Guy Davidov and Brian Langille, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 240.

  82. 82.

    Katherine V.W. Stone. 2004. From Widgets to Digits: Employment Regulation for the Changing Workplace. New York, Cambridge University Press, p. 290.

  83. 83.

    Małgorzata Gersdorf. 2013. Prawo zatrudnienia, Warszawa: Lexisnexis, p. 170.

  84. 84.

    de Stefano (2016, p. 20).

  85. 85.

    Mark Freedland and Nicola Kountouris. 2011. The legal contstruction of personal work relations Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 27.

  86. 86.

    Freedland and Kountouris (2011, p. 31).

  87. 87.

    Jeremias Prassl. 2016. The Concept of Employer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 32.

  88. 88.

    Prassl (2016, p. 155). The author also succesfully argues that the concept is well suited to the platform workers: Prassl (2018); Prassl and Risak (2017).

  89. 89.

    Zob. Johnston and Land-Kazlauskas. (2018); Vandaele. (2018).

  90. 90.

    Gersdorf (2013, p. 190). Similar catalogues of rights are also presented by Musiała 2011, p. 254-255 and the Frankfurt Paper on Platform-Based Work https://www.igmetall.de/docs_20161214_Frankfurt_Paper_on_Platform_Based_Work_EN_b939ef89f7e5f3a639cd6a1a930feffd8f55cecb.pdf.

  91. 91.

    Gersdorf (2013, p. 180–190). Similar set of rights was also lied down by the ILO in the proposed convention on contract work (article 6).

  92. 92.

    Gersdorf (2013, p. 191).

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  1. University of Business and Administration, Gdynia, Poland

    Joanna Unterschütz

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  1. Joanna Unterschütz
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Correspondence to Joanna Unterschütz .

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  1. Polish Academy of Sciences, Warszawa, Poland

    Jerzy Wratny

  2. University of Rzeszow, Rzeszów, Poland

    Agata Ludera-Ruszel

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Unterschütz, J. (2020). Digital Labour Platforms: Dusk or Dawn of Labour Law?. In: Wratny, J., Ludera-Ruszel, A. (eds) New Forms of Employment. Prekarisierung und soziale Entkopplung – transdisziplinäre Studien. Springer VS, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-28511-1_20

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