Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Flicker

  • Chapter
Visual Psychophysics

Part of the book series: Handbook of Sensory Physiology ((1536,volume 7 / 4))

Abstract

The phenomena of visual flicker have been studied for more than two centuries. During the last several years, however, it has become apparent that most of the resulting data and theories can be simplified by the principles of Fourier analysis (mathematical relations that have been widely used in the physical sciences for more than a century). This analytic trend is the main theme of the present review; selected experimental results (psychophysical and electrophysiological) are emphasized primarily to clarify the underlying rationale.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Baker, H. D.: Instantaneous threshold and early dark adaptation. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 43, 98–803 (1953).

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartley, S. H., Nelson, T. M.: A further study of pulse-to-cycle fraction and critical flicker requency. A decisive theoretical test. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 51, 41–45 (1961).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boynton, R. M., Kandel, G.: On responses in the human visual system as a function of daptation level. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 47, 275–286 (1957).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boynton, R. M., Stttrr, J. F., Ikeda, M.: Study of flicker by increment threshold technique. J. opt. Soc. mer. 51, 196–201 (1961).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brindley, G. S.: Beats produced by simultaneous stimulation of the human eye with intermittent light and intermittent or alternating electric current. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 164, 57–167 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. L.: Harmonic analysis of visual stimuli below fusion frequency. Science 137, 86–688 (1962).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. L., Flicker and intermittent stimulation. Ch. 10. In: Vision and Visual Perception. Graham, H. (Ed.). New York: Wiley 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. T.: The electroretinogram: Its components and their origins. Vision Res. 8, 33–677 (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, B., Enroth-Cugell, C.: Cat retinal ganglion cell responses to changing light ntensities: Sinusoidal modulation in the time domain. Acta physiol. scand. 68, 365–381 1966).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cobb, P. W.: Some comments on the Ives theory of flicker. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 24, 91–98 1934).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Experiments on flicker and some calculations on an electrical analogue of the oveal systems. Physica 18, 935–950 (1952).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Relationship between critical flicker frequency and a set of low-frequency characteristics of the eye. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 44, 380–389 (1954).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Attenuation characteristics and phase-shift characteristics of the human fovea-cortex systems in relation to flicker-fusion phenomena. Doctoral dissertation, Technical University, Delft (1957).

    Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Research into the dynamic nature of the human fovea-cortex systems with intermittent and modulated light. I. Attenuation characteristics with white and colored light. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 48, 777–784 (1958a).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Research into the dynamic nature of the human fovea-cortex systems with intermittent and modulated light. II. Phase shift in brightness and delay in color perception. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 48, 784–789 (1958b).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Lange, H.: Eye’s response at flicker fusion to square-wave modulation of a test field surrounded by a large steady field of equal mean luminance. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 51, 415–421 (1961).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: Electrical responses to flicker in the eye of the wolf spider, Lycosa baltimoriana. Doctoral dissertation. The Rockefeller Institute, New York (1961).

    Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: Linear superposition of retinal action potentials to predict electrical flicker responses from the eye of the wolf spider, Lycosa baltimoriana (Keyserling). J. gen. Physiol. 46, 75–96 (1962).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: Linear relations between stimulus amplitudes and amplitudes of retinal action potentials from the eye of the wolf spider. J. gen. Physiol. 47, 13–32 (1963).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: Linear electrical flicker responses from the eye of the wolf spider. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 128–136 (1964).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: A nonlinear model of sensory adaptation in the eye of the wolf spider. In: The Functional Organization of the Compound Eye. Bernhard, C. G. (Ed.), pp. 309–328. Oxford: Pergamon 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Voe, R. D.: A nonlinear model for transient responses from light-adapted wolf spider eyes. J. gen. Physiol. 50, 1993–2030 (1967).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dow, J. S.: The speed of flicker photometers. Electrician 59, 255–257 (1907).

    Google Scholar 

  • Enroth, C.: The mechanism of flicker and fusion studied on single retinal elements in the dark-adapted eye of the cat. Acta physiol. scand. 27, Suppl. 100 (1952).

    Google Scholar 

  • Enroth-Cuell, C., Robson, J. G.: The contrast sensitivity of the retinal ganglion cell of the cat. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 187, 517–532 (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth, D. M.: Use of a Fourier model in describing the fusion of complex visual stimuli. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 50, 337–341 (1960).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth, D. M., Brown, C. R.: Flicker for intermittent photic stimuli of alternating duration. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 49, 760–763 (1959).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth, D. M., Brown, C. R.: Nonlinear property of the visual system at fusion. Science 134, 612–614 (1961).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forsyth, D. M., Brown, C. R.: Visual system at fusion. Science 135, 794–795 (1962).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuortes, M. G. F., Hodgkin, A. L.: Changes in time scale and sensitivity in the ommatidia of Limulus. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 172, 239–263 (1964).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbins, K., Howarth, C. I.: Prediction of the effect of the light-time fraction on the critical licker frequency; an insight from Fourier analysis. Nature (Lond.) 190, 330–331 (1961).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gouras, P., Gunkel, R. D.: The frequency response of normal, rod achromat and nyctalope RGS to sinusoidal monochromatic light stimulation. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 137–150 1964).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Green, D. G.: Sinusoidal flicker characteristics of the color-sensitive mechanisms of the eye. Vision Res. 9, 591–601 (1969).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henkes, H. E., van der Tweel, L. H. (Eds.): Flicker (Documenta Ophthalmologica, Vol. VIII). Hague: Dr. W. Junk 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubel, D. H., Wiesel, T. N.: Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate ortex. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 195, 215–243 (1968).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, G. W., Maffei, L.: Retinal ganglion cell response to sinusoidal light stimulation. J Neurophysiol. 29, 333–352 (1966).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda, M.: Temporal summation of positive and negative flashes in the visual system. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 55, 1527–1534 (1965).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikeda, M., Boynton, R. M.: Negative flashes, positive flashes, and flicker examined by increment threshold technique. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 55, 560–566 (1965).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ives, H. E.: Critical frequency relations in scotopic vision. J. opt. Soc. Amer, and Rev. Sci. Instr. 6, 254–268 (1922a).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ives, H. E.: A theory of intermittent vision. J. opt. Soc. Amer, and Rev. Sci. Instr. 6, 343–361 (1922 b).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. C.: On the quantum efficiency of scotopic and photopic vision. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 7, 100–108 (1957).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamp, A., Sem-Jacobsen, C. W., van Leettwen, W. S., van der Tweel, L. H.: Cortical esponses to modulated light in the human subject. Acta physiol. scand. 48, 1–12 (1960).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Effects of sharp edges in a flickering field. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 49, 730–732 1959).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Visual responses to time-dependent stimuli. I. Amplitude sensitivity measurements. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 51, 422–49 (1961a).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Visual responses to time-dependent stimuli. II. Single-channel model of the photopic visual system. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 51, 747–754 (1961b).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Flicker fusion and harmonic analysis. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 51, 917–918 (1961c).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Visual responses to time-dependent stimuli. IV. Effects of chromatic adaptation. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 52, 940–947 (1962).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Sine waves and flicker fusion. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 16–35 (1964).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, D. H.: Flickering patterns and lateral inhibition. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 59, 1361–1370 (1969).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, C.: An annotated bibliography of flicker fusion phenomena, covering the period of 740–1952. Ann Arbor: Armed Forces -Nat. Res. Council (1953).

    Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J.: Fusion of complex flicker. Science 130, 919–921 (1959).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J.: Fusion of complex flicker II. Science 131, 1438–1440 (1960).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J.: Nonlinear and spatial effects in the perception of flicker. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 36–55 (1964).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J.: One-stage model for visual temporal integration. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 56, 95–97 (1966).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J.: Flicker fusion phenomena. Science 160, 21–28 (1968).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levlnson, J., Harmon, L. D.: Studies with artificial neurons, III: Mechanisms of flicker-fusion. Kybernetik 1, 107–117 (1961).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maffei, L., Cervetto, L.: Dynamical interactions in retinal receptive fields. Vision Res. 8, 1299–1303 (1968).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maffei, L., Poppele, R. E.: Transient and steady-state electroretinal responses. Vision Res. 8, 229–246 (1968).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maffei, L., Rizolatti, G.: Transfer properties of the lateral geniculate body. J. Neurophysiol. 30, 333–340 (1967).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marimont, R. B.: Numerical studies of the Fuortes-Hodgkin Limulus model. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 179, 489–497 (1965).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, S. T., Zimmerman, H. J.: Electronic Circuits, Signals and Systems. New York: Wiley 1960 (see Sec. 7.14).

    Google Scholar 

  • Matin, L.: Fourier treatment of some experiments in visual flicker. Science 136, 983–985 1962).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matin, L.: Critical duration, the differential luminance threshold, critical flicker frequency, and visual adaptation: a theoretical treatment. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 58, 404–415 (1968).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ogawa, T., Bishop, P. O., Levick, W. R.: Temporal characteristics of responses to photic stimulation by single ganglion cells in the unopened eye of the cat. J. Neurophysiol. 29, 1–30 (1966).

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pieron, H.: La vision en lumière intermittente (Monographies Francises de Psychologie No. 8). Paris: Centre National de la Récherche Scientifique 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pieron, H.: Vision in intermittent light. In: Contributions to Sensory Physiology, Neff, W. D. (Ed.). New York: Academic Press 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinter, R. B.: Sinusoidal and delta function responses of visual cells of the Limulus eye. J. en. Physiol. 49, 565–593 (1966).

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ratliff, F., Knight, B. W., Toyoda, J., Hartline, H. K.: Enhancement of flicker by lateral nhibition. Science 158, 392–393 (1967).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D.: Some characteristics of average steady-state and transient responses evoked by-modulated light. Electroenceph. clin. Neurophysiol. 20, 238–248 (1966a).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D.: An effect of stimulus colour on average steady-state potentials evoked in man. Nature (Lond.) 210, 1056–1057 (1966b).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D.: Chromatic adaptation and steady-state evoked potentials. Vision Res. 8, 49–158 (1968 a).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Regan, D.: A high frequency mechanism which underlies visual evoked potentials. Electroenceph. clin. Neurophysiol. 25, 231–237 (1968b).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, L. A.: Electrophysiology of vision. Ch. 5. In: Vision and Visual Perception. Gbahm, C. H. (Ed.). New York: Wiley 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, L. A., Johnson, E. P., Schick, A. M. L.: Electrical responses of the human eye to moving stimulus patterns. Science 144, 567 (1964).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riggs, L. A., Johnson, E. P., Schick, A. M. L.: Electrical responses of the human eye to changes in wavelength of the stimulating ight. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 56, 1621–1627 (1966).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roufs, J. A. J.: On the relation between the threshold of short flashes, the flicker fusion requency and the visual latency. In: IPO Annual Progress Report No. 1. Eindhoven: Institute for Perception Research 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roufs, J. A. J., Lammers, J. T. H., Siemons, J. A.: Positive and negative flashes. In: IPO Annual Progress Report No. 2. Eindhoven: Institute for Perception Research 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roufs, J. A. J., Meuenbrugge, H. J.: The quantitative relation between flash threshold and the flicker-fusion boundary for centrally fixated fields. In: IPO Annual Progress Report No. 2. Eindhoven: Institute for Perception Research 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spekreijse, H.: Analysis of EEG responses in man evoked by sine wave modulated light. Doctoral dissertation, University of Amsterdam (1966).

    Google Scholar 

  • Spekreijse, H., Van deb Tweel, L. H.: Linearization of evoked responses to sine wave modulated light by noise. Nature (Lond.) 205, 913 (1965).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spekreijse, H., Van der Tweel, L. H.: Flicker and noise. In: Clinical Electroretinography Symp. 1964, Vision Res. Suppl. 1, pp. 275–280. Oxford: Pergamon 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sperling, G., Sondhi, M. M.: Model for visual luminance discrimination and flicker detection. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 58, 1133–1145 (1968).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Troelstra, A.: Nonlinear systems analysis in electroretinography. Soesterberg: Institute for Perception RVO-TNO 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troelstra, A., Schweitzer, N. M. J.: On the relation between the single flash ERG and the ERG elicited by more complex stimuli. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 114–127 (1964).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tweel, L. H. van der: Some problems in vision regarded with respect to linearity and frequency response. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 89, 829–856 (1961).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tweel, L. H. van der: Relation between psychophysics and electrophysiology of flicker. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 287–304 (1964).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tweel, L. H. van der, Spekreijse, H.: Visual evoked responses. In: The Clinical Value of Electroretinography, ISCERG Symp. Ghent 1966, pp. 83–94. Basel: Karger 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tweel, L. H. van der, Verduyn Lunel, H. F. E.: Human visual responses to sinusoidally modulated light. Electroenceph. clin. Neurophysiol. 18, 587–598 (1965).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veringa, F.: On some properties of nonthreshold flicker. J. opt. Soc. Amer. 48, 500–502 (1958).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veringa, F.: Phase shifts in the human retina. Nature (Lond.) 197, 998–999 (1963).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veringa, F.: Electro-optical stimulation of the human retina as a research technique. Documenta Ophthal. 18, 72–82 (1964).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veringa, F., Roelofs, J.: Electro-optical interaction in the retina. Nature (Lond.) 211, 321–322 (1966).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West, D. C.: Flicker and the stabilized retinal image. Vision Res. 8, 719–745 (1968).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Menlo Park, California, USA

    D. H. Kelly

Authors
  1. D. H. Kelly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19104, USA

    Dorothea Jameson  & Leo M. Hurvich  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1972 Springer-Verlag, Berlin · Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kelly, D.H. (1972). Flicker. In: Jameson, D., Hurvich, L.M. (eds) Visual Psychophysics. Handbook of Sensory Physiology, vol 7 / 4. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-88658-4_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-88658-4_11

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-88660-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-88658-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation