Abstract
Absence or hypoplasia of the thymus is usually caused by immunodeficiency diseases or syndromes (Table 7.1).
In all cases a lateral chest x-ray or a CT scan is necessary to determine absence or dysplasia (thinness) of the thymus.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Reference
Alt W, Hochman HI (1982) Thyrotoxicosis and myasthenia gravis. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 21: 749
Baron RL, Lee JKT, Sagel SS, Peterson RR (1982) Computed tomography of the normal thymus. Radiology 142: 121
Barrick B, O’Kell RT (1969) Thymic cysts and remnant cervical thymus. J Pediatr Surg 4: 355
Bar-Ziv J, Barki Y, Itzchak Y, Mares AJ (1984) Posterior mediastinal accessory thymus. Pediatr Radiol 14: 165
Batsakis JG (1974) Tumors of the head and neck: clinical and pathological considerations. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, p 233
Baudain P, Terraube P, Crouzet A (1980) Une tumeur peu banale du médiastin postérieur chez l’enfant. Arch Fr Pédiatr 37: 609
Belohradsky BH (1985) Thymusaplasie und -hypoplasie mit Hypoparathyreoidismus, Herz- und Gefäßmißbildungen (Di-George-Syndrom). Ergeb Inn Med Kinderheilkd 54: 35
Bistritzer T, Tamir A, Oland J, Varsano D, Manor A, Gall A, Aladjem M (1985) Severe dyspnea and dysphagia resulting from an aberrant cervical thymus. Eur J Pediatr 144: 86
Caffey J, Di Liberti (1959) Acute atrophy of thymus induced adrenocorticosteroids observed roentgenologically. AJR 82: 530
Castellanos A, Peireiras R, Garcia O (1971) Angiocardiography in huge hypertrophy of the thymus. AJR 112: 40
Claus D, Coppens JP (1984) Sonography of mediastinal masses in infants and children. Ann Radiol (Paris) 27: 150
Cohen MD, Weber TR, Sequeira FW, Vane DW, King H (1983) The diagnostic dilemma of the posterior mediastinal thymus. CT manifestations. Radiology 146: 691
Cory DA, Cohen MD, Smith JA (1987) Thymus in the superior mediastinum simulating adenopathy: appearance on CT. Radiology 162: 457
Cowart MA (1980) Radiologic seminar CCVII: ectopic thymus. J Miss State Med Assoc 21: 217
Day DL, Gedgaudas E (1984) The Thymus. Radiol Clin North Am 22: 519
Domarus H, von Blaha J (1987) Ectopic thymus in the neck; a case report and review of the literature. Br J Plast Surg 40: 532
Ebel KD (1980) Zur Röntgendiagnostik des Thymus im Kindesalter. Radiologe 20: 379
Epstein HC, Loeb WJ (1955) Thymic tumor of the pharynx. J Pediatr 47: 105
Falk P (1936) Über ortsfremde gutartige Gewebsbildungen, Thymus und Thyreoidea-gewebe im Kehlkopf. Arch Ohren-, Nasen-, Kehlkopfkrankh 141: 118
Fauré C (1978) Le thymus. In: Lefèbvre J et al. (eds) Traité de radiodiagnostic: Radiopédiatrie, vol 19. Masson, Paris, p 53
Finch DRA, Gough MH (1972) Ectopic thymic tissue presenting as a lateral cervical swelling. Br J Surg 59: 885
Gilmour JR (1941) Some developmental abnormalities of thymus and parathyroids. J Pathol Bacteriol 52: 213
Goebel N (1985) Lokalisation des Thymus im unteren Halsbereich. Digitale Bilddiagn 5: 8
Grumbach S, Uhlig W, Schöning M (1985) Weichteilschwellung im Kopf-Halsbereich — sonographische Diagnostik Vortr 81. Tag Dtsch Gesellsch Kinderheilkd. Frankfurt (M)
Hagens EW (1932) Malformation of the auditory apparatus in the newborn, associated with ectopic thymus. Arch Otolaryngol 15: 671
Hurley MF (1977) Cervicomediastinal thymic cyst: cyst puncture and contrast radiographic demonstration. Br J Radiol 50: 676
Johnson PM, Berdon WE, Baker DH, Fawwaz RA (1978) Thymic uptake of gallium-67 citrate in a healthy 4 year-old boy. Pediatr Radiol 7: 243
Juzbasič D, Pasini M (1965) Thymus anularis. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 90: 1050
Kabelka M, Horák J (1976) Pneumomediastinography in the diagnosis of ectopic lobe of the thymus in respiratory obstruction. J Pediatr Surg 11: 265
Kabelka M, Sintáková B, Zitková M (1977) Dysontogenetic accessory lobe of the thymus. A new clinical entity? Z Kinderchir 20: 116
Koecher PH (1959) Fehldiagnose eines Tumors im hinteren oberen Mediastinum durch ungewöhnlich gelegene Thymusdrüse. ROFO 90: 515
Lucien et al (1966) see Testut-Latarget A (1966)
Malone PS, Fitzgerald RJ (1987) Aberrant thymus: a misleading mediastinal mass. J Pediatr Surg 22: 130
Martin DJ (1975) Experiences with acute surgical conditions. Radiol Clin North Am 8: 297
Martin KW, McAlister WH (1987) Intratracheal thymus: a rare cause of airway obstruction. AJR 149: 1217
Michelson H, Sender B (1956) Cervical thymus: report of a case. Arch Surg 72: 275
Noback NG (1926) Thymus in newborn and early infancy. Radiology 7: 416
Otto HF (1984) Pathologie des Thymus. In: Doerr W, Seifert G (eds) Spezielle pathologische Anatomie, vol 17. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo
Parker LA, Gaisie G, Scatliff JH (1985) Computerited tomography and ultrasonographic findings in massive thymic hyperplasia. Clin Pediatr 24: 90
Poell J, Stanisic M, Morger R (1979) Beitrag zum akzessorischen Thymus. Z Kinderchir 26: 62
Rollins NK, Currarino G (1988) MR imaging of posterior mediastinal thymus. J Comput Assist Tomogr 12: 518
Rosai J, Levine GD (1976) Tumors of the thymus. In: Atlas of tumor pathology, 2nd ser, fasc. 13. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington DC
Rypens F, Avni F, Müller F, Buran D, von Struy J (1989) Thymus ectopique cervical. J Radiol 70: 721
Saade M, Whitten DN, Necheles TF, Leape L, Darling D (1976) Posterior mediastinal accessory thymus. J Pediatr 88: 71
Schnell VY (1975) problme der Thymusdiagnostik bei atypischer Lage und seltenen Begleitumständen. Thesis, Cologne
Shackelford GD, McAlister WH (1974) The aberrantly positioned thymus. A cause of mediastinal or neck masses in children. AJR 120: 291
Siegel MJ, Glazer HS, Wiener JI, Molina PL (1989) Normal and abnormal thymus in childhood: MR imaging. Radiology 172: 367
Spigland N, Bensoussan AL, Blanchard H, Russo P (1990) Aberrant cervical thymus in children: three case reports and review of the literature. J Pediatr Surg 25: 1196
Tesseraux H (1953) Physiologie und Pathologie des Thymus unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der pathologischen Morphologie. Barth, Leipzig
Testut-Latarget A (1966) Tratado de Anatomia Humana, 9th edn. Salvat Editors, SA, Barcelona, p 940
Thorrens SJ, Pantzer JG, Bennett JE (1969) Cervical thymus gland. Plast Reconstr Surg 44: 86
Tovi F, Mares AJ (1978) The aberrant cervical thymus. Embryology, pathology, and clinical implications. Am J Surg 136: 631
Ball F, Stöver B, Vettermann HE, Müller U (1982) Zum Aussagewert der Thoraxaufnahmen bei isolierter valvulärer Pulmonalstenose. Monatsschr. Kinderheilkd. 130: 41
Baron RL, Lee JKT, Sagel SS, Peterson RR (1982) Computed tomography of the normal thymus. Radiology 142: 121
Castellanos A, Pereiras R, Garcia O (1971) Angiocardiography in huge hypertrophy of the thymus. AJR 112: 40
Ebel KD (1980) Zur Röntgendiagnostik des Thymus im Kindesalter. Radiologe 20: 379
Heiberg E, Wolverson MK, Sundaram M, Nouri S (1982) Normal thymus: CT characteristics in subjects under age 20. AJR 138: 491
Kook Sang Oh, Weber AL, Borden SP (1971) Normal mediastinal mass in late childhood. Radiology 101: 625
Lack EE (1981) Thymic hyperplasia with massive enlargement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 81: 741
Lissner J (1963) Die röntgenologische Diagnostik der Thy-mustumoren. Radiologe 1: 31
Parker LA, Gaisie G, Scatliff JH (1985) Computed tomography and ultrasonographic findings in massive thymic hyperplasia. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 24: 90
Pohlenz O (1968) Röntgenologische Thymusdiagnostik. Med Klin 63: 1255
Siegel MJ, Sagel SS, Reed K (1982) The value of computed tomography in the diagnosis and management of pediatric mediastinal abnormalities. Radiology 142: 149
Sone S, Higashihara T, Morimoto S et al. (1980) Normal anatomy of the thymus and anterior mediastinum by pneumomediastinography. AJR 134: 81
Steinmann GG (1984) Altersveränderungen des menschlichen Thymus. Thesis, Medical Faculty, University of Kiel
Stöver B, Ball F, Müller U (1975) Die radiologische Differenzierung eines prominenten Pulmonalsegmentes. Vortrag 12. Jahrestagung, Ges für Pädiatr Radiol, Vienna
Straube EM, Rautenburg HW (1974) Der prominente Pul-monalisbogen im Säuglings- und Kindesalter. Klin Pädiatr 186: 107
Walter E, Hübener K-H (1980) Computertomographische Charakteristika raumfordernder Prozesse im vorderen Mediastinum und ihre Differentialdiagnose. ROFO 133: 391
Abildgaard A, Lien HH, Fosså SD, Høie J, Langholm R (1989) Enlargement of the thymus following chemotherapy for non-seminomatous testicular cancer. Acta Radiol 30: 259
Alpert LI, Papatestas A, Kark A, Osserman RS, Osserman K (1971) A histologic reappraisal of the thymus in myasthenia gravis. A correlative study of thymic pathology and response to thymectomy. Arch Pathol 91: 55
Alt W, Hochman HJ (1982) Thyrotoxicosis and myasthenia gravis. Clin Pediatr 21: 749
Amann L (1962) Der Thymus beim Säugling und Kleinkind aus heutiger Sicht. Pädiatr Prax 1: 385
Arliss J, Scholes J, Dickson PR, Messina JJ (1988) Massive thymic hyperplasia in an adolescent. Ann Thorac Surg 45: 220
Attar Z, Muraji T, Matsumoto Y et al. (1988) Malignant mesenchymoma of the mediastinum initially presenting as benign thymic hyperplasia. Pediatr Surg Int 4: 56
Balcom RH, Hakanson DO, Werner A, Gordon LP (1985) Massive thymic hyperplasia in an infant with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 109: 153
Barcia PJ, Nelson TG (1979) Hyperplasia of the thymus and thymic neoplasms in children. Milit Med 144: 799
Baron RL, Lee JKT, Sagel SS, Peterson RR (1982) Computed tomography of the normal thymus. Radiology 142: 121
Barth K, Schnauffer L, Kaufmann HJ (1976) Giant idiopathic thymomegaly. Pediatr Radiol 4: 117
Bar-Ziv J, Barki Y, Itzchak Y, Mares AJ (1984) Posterior mediastinal accessory thymus. Pediatr Radiol 14: 165
Batra P, Herrmann C, Mulder D (1987) Mediastinal imaging in myasthenia gravis: correlation of chest radiography, CT, MR and surgical findings. AJR 148: 515
Bell BA, Esseltine DW, Azouz EM (1984) Rebound thymic hyperplasia in a child with cancer. Med Pediatr Oncol 12: 144
Bertoye A, Beraud C, Depierre A, Duc H, Beraud A (1956) Hypertrophie thymique et primo-infection du nourrisson. Pédiatrie 11: 545
Bierich JR, Schmidt-Grimminger V (1966) Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung des großen Thymus im Säuglings- und Kleinkindalter. Pädiatr Grenzgeb 5: 179
Birk W (1918) Beiträge zur Klinik und Behandlung der Thymushyperplasie bei Kindern. Monatschr Kinder-heilkd 14: 363
Bistritzer T, Tamir A, Oland J, Varsano D, Manor A, Gall A, Aladjem M (1985) Severe dyspnea and dysphagia resulting from an aberrant cervical thymus. Eur J Pediatr 144: 86
Blasimann B, Kuffer F, Bettex M (1977) Chirurgische Betrachtungen über die Thymushyperplasie. Z Kinderchir 21: 214
Bode U, Scheidt W (1988) Change of thymic size during and following cytotoxic therapy in young patients. Pediatr Radiol 18: 20
Bofill M, Janossy G, Willcox N, Chilosi M, Trejdosiewicz LK, Bagott M, Newsom-Davic J (1985) Microenvironments in the normal and myasthenia gravis thymus. Am J Pathol 199: 462
Bower RJ, Kiesewetter WB (1977) Mediastinal masses in infants and children. Arch Surg 112: 1003
Brown LR, Muhm JR, Sheedy II PF, Unni KK, Bernatz PE, Hermann RC (1983) The value of computed tomography in myasthenia gravis. AJR 140: 31
Bruce JW, Graves S (1922) Respiratory obstruction resulting in death. Case report with necropsy findings. Am J Dis Child 23: 438
Caffey J (1950) Pediatric X-ray diagnosis, 2nd edn. Year Book Publishers, Chicago, pp 322 and 327
Caffey J, Silbey R (1960) Regrowth and overgrowth of the thymus after atrophy induced by the oral administration of adrenocorticosteroids to human infants. Pediatrics 26: 762
Capper A, Schless RA (1934) Thymic gland and thymic symptoms: investigation of 1074 newborn babies. J Pediatr 4: 573
Carmosino L, DiBenedetto A, Feffer S (1985) Thymic hyperplasia following successful chemotherapy. A report of two cases and review of the literature. Cancer 56: 1526
Castleman B (1966) The pathology of the thymus gland in myasthenia gravis. Ann NY Acad Sci 135: 496
Castleman B, Norris EH (1949) The pathology of the thymus in myasthenia gravis. Medicine (Baltimore) 28: 27
Choyke PL, Zeman RK, Gootenberg JE, Greenberg JN, Hoffer F, Frank JA (1987) Thymic atrophy and regrowth in response to chemotherapy: CT evaluation. AJR 149: 269
Ciba Foundation Symposium, No. 84 (1981) Microenvironments in haemopoietic and lymphoid differentiation. Pitman, London
Cocchi U (1959) Röntgendiagnostik und Strahlentherapie des Thymus. Strahlentherapie [Sonderb] 109: 426
Cohen M, Hill CA, Cangir A, Sullivan MP (1980) Thymic rebound after treatment of childhood tumors. AJR 135: 151
Cohen MD, Weber TR, Sequeira FW, Vane DW, King H (1983) The diagnostic dilemma of the posterior mediastinal thymus: CT manifestations. Radiology 146: 691
Consolini R, Cini P, Cei B, Bottone E (1987) Thymic dysfunction in histiocytosis-X. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 9: 146
Cozzolino O (1914) Il trattamento radioterapeutico della iperplasia timica nell’infanzia. Pediatria 22: 292
Dalakas MC, Engel WK, McClure JE, Goldstein AL, Askanas V (1981) Immunocytochemical localization of thymosin-α1 in thymic epithelial cells of normal and myasthenia gravis patients and in thymic cultures. J Neurol Sci 50: 239
Danilewicz-Wytrychowska T (1981) Zur Röntgendiagnostik und Differentialdiagnose der Thymuserkrankungen im Kindesalter. Radiologe 21: 542
Dieckmann K-P, Düe W, Bauknecht K-J, Hamm B (1988) Reaktive benigne Thymushyperplasie nach zytostatischer Chemotherapie. Dtsch Med Wschr 113: 598–601
d’Oelsnitz PL, Pachetta L (1911) Les charact è res de l’image radioscopique dans l’hypertrophie du thymus. Bull Soc Pédiatr 462
Doppmann JL, Oldfield EH, Chrousos GP, Nieman L, Udelsmar R, Cutler GB, Loriaux DL (1986) Rebound thymic hyperplasia after treatment of Cushing’s syndrome. AJR 147: 1145
Düe W, Dieckmann K-P, Stein H (1988) Thymic hyperplasia following chemotherapy of a testicular germ cell tumor. Cancer 63: 446
Dutoit A (1913) Die Radiotherapie der Thymushyperplasie. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 39: 515
Ebel KD (1980) Zur Röntgendiagnostik des Thymus im Kindesalter. Radiologe 20: 379
Eggers F (1913) Experimentelle Beiträge zur Einwirkung der Röntgenstrahlen auf den Thymus. Z Röntgenkd 15
Esser C, Hilgert F (1956) Zur Frage: Thymus, Atelektase oder mediastinaler Pleuraerguß? ROFO 84: 3
Fasanelli S, Barbuti D, Grazioni M (1987) Thymic involvement in acute disseminated histiocytosis. X-rays 12: 39
Filler RM, Simpson JS, Ein SH (1979) Mediastinal masses in infants and children. Pediatr Clin North Am 26: 677
Findling JW, Tyrell JP (1986) Occult ectopic secretion of corticotropin. Arch Intern Med 146: 929
Fischl R (1923) Physiologie und Pathologie der Thymusdrüse im Kindesalter. In: Pfaundler M von, Schlossmann A (eds) Handbuch der Kinderheilkunde, 3rd edn, vol 1. FCW Vogel, Leipzig, p 919
Ford EG, Lockhart SK, Sullivan MP, Andrassy RY (1987) Mediastinal mass Hodgkin’s disease: recurrent tumor or thymic hyperplasia? J Pediatr Surg 22: 1155
Francis JR, Glazer GM, Bookstein FL, Gross BH (1985) The thymus: reexamination of age-related changes in size and shape. AJR 145: 249
Franken EA Jr (1968) Radiologic evidence of thymyic enlargement in Graves’ disease. Radiology 91: 20
Friedjung JK (1910) Der Thymus. In: Pfaundler M, Schlossmann A (eds) Handbuch der Kinderheilkunde, 2nd edn, vol 3. FCW Vogel, Leipzig, p 448
Gelfand DW, Goldman AS, Law EJ, MacMillan BG, Larson D, Abston S, Schreiber JT (1972) Thymic hyperplasia in children recovering from thermal burns. J Trauma 12: 813
Gilmartin D (1963) Leukemic involvement of the thymus in children. Br J Radiol 36: 211
Glanzmann E (1949) Einführung in die Kinderheilkunde, 3rd edn. Springer, Wien
Glathe S, Neufang KFR, Haupt FW (1989) Was leistet die radiologische Thymusdiagnostik bei der Myasthenia gravis? Röntgenblätter 42: 455
Goldstein G, Mackay IR (1969) The human thymus. Heinemann Medical, London, pp 13, 134, 242, 290
Graham CB, Berdon WE, Patriquin HB, Kuhn JP (1990) Thymic hyperplasia. film panel cases Soc. of Pediatr. Radiol: Pediatr Radiol 20: 371
Grissom JR, Duran JR, Whitley RJ, Flint A (1983) Thymic hyperplasia in a case of Hodgkin’s disease. South Med J 76: 1189
Grody WW, Jobst S, Keesey J, Herrmann C, Maeim F (1986) Pathologic evaluation of thymic hyperplasia in myasthenia gravis and Lambert-Eaton syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 110: 843
Gubbawy H, Hofmann A (1974) Der Thymus im Säuglingsund Kindesalter. Prax Pneumol 28: 615
Haller JA Jr, Mazur DO, Morgan WW Jr (1969) Diagnosis and management of mediastinal masses in children. J Thorax Cardiovasc Surg 58: 385
Haller JO, Schneider M, Kassner EG, Friedman AP, Waldroup LD (1980) Sonographic evaluation of the chest in infants and children. AJR 134: 1019
Harris VJ, Ramilo J, White H (1980) The thymic mass as a mediastinal dilemma. Clin Radiol 31: 263
Heiberg E, Wolverson MK, Sundaram M, Nouri S (1982) Normal thymus: CT characteristics in subjects under age 20. AJR 138: 491
Hendrickx P, Döhring W (1989) Thymic atrophy and rebound enlargement following chemotherapy for testicular cancer. Acta Radiol 30: 263
Hill CA, Dodd GD (1970) Thymic hyperplasia simulating mediastinal metastasis. Tex Med 66: 78
Hochsinger C (1903) Stridor thymicus infantum. Wien Med Wochenschr 2106: 2162
Hoeffel JC, Pernot C, Worms AM, Bretagne MC, Bernard C (1988) L’hypertrophie thymique post-opératoire dans les cardiopathies congénitales graves. Ann Pédiatr (Paris) 35: 440
Hofmann WJ, Möller P, Momburg F, Moldenhauer G, Otto HF (1984) Struktur des normalen Thymus, der lymphofollikulären Thymushyperplasie und der Thymome, dargestellt mit Lectinen, S-100-Proteinen und Keratin-Antiseren und monoklonalen (epithelitropen) Antikörpern. Verh Dtsch Ges Pathol 68: 504
Hofmann WJ, Möller P, Manke H-G, Otto HF (1985) Thymoma — a clinicopathologic study of 98 cases with special reference to three unusual cases. Pathol Res Pract 179: 337
Hofmann WJ, Möller P, Otto HF (1987) Thymic hyperplasia. II. Lymphofollicular hyperplasia in the thymus. An immunohistologic study. Klin Wochenschr 65: 53
Hofmann WJ, Momburg F, Möller P, Otto HF (1988 a) Intra- and extrahepatic B cells in physiological study on normal thymus and lymphofollicular hyperplasia of the thymus. Virchows Arch [A] 412: 431
Hofmann WJ, Momburg F, Möller P (1988 b) Thymic medullary cells expressing B-lymphocyte antigens. Hum Pathol 19: 1280
Hofmann WJ, Möller P, Otto HF (1990) Thymushyperplasia. In: Givel JC, Merlini M, Clarke DB, Dusmet M (eds) Surgery of the thymus, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo, p 59
Hope JW, Borns PF, Koop CE (1963) Radiological diagnosis of mediastinal masses in infants and children. Radiol Clin North Am 1: 17
Janossy G, Thomas JA, Bollum FJ et al. (1980) The human thymic microenvironment: an immuno-histologic study. J Immunol 125: 202
Janossy G, Bofill M, Trejdosiewicz LK, Willcox HNA, Chilosi M (1986) Cellular differentiation of lymphoid subpopulations and their microenvironments. In: Müller-Hermelink H-K (ed) Current topics in pathology 75. The human thymus. Histophysiology and pathology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, p 89
Judd RL (1987) Massive thymic hyperplasia with myoid cell differentiation. Hum Pathol 18: 1180
Katz SM, Chatten J, Bishop HC, Rosenblum H (1977) Massive thymic enlargement. Am J Clin Pathol 68: 786
Keuth U (1974) Thymushyperplasie. Pädiatr Prax 14: 447
Kim M, Martrou P, Nedele G, Saint-Macary M, Tchertoff C (1972) Les détresses respiratoires d’origine thymique chez le nouveau-n è et le nourrisson. A propos deux observations. Arch Fr Pédiatr 29: 556
Kim Han B, Babcock DS, Oestreich AF (1989) Normal thymus in infancy: sonographic characteristics. Radiology 170: 471
Kirchner T, Schalke B, Melms A, von Kügelgen T, Müller-Hermelink HK (1986) Immunohistological patterns of non-neoplastic changes in the thymus in myasthenia gravis. Virchows Arch [B] 62: 237
Kirks DR, Korobkin M (1980) Chest computed tomography in infants and children. An analysis of 50 patients. Pediatr Radiol 10: 75
Kissin CM, Husband JE, Nicholas D, Eversman W (1987) Benign thymic enlargement in adults after chemotherapy: CT demonstration. Radiology 163: 67
Kobayashi T, Hirabayashi Y, Kobayashi Y (1986) Diagnostic value of plain chest roentgenogram and CT scan findings in four cases of massive thymic hyperplasia. Pediatr Radiol 16: 452
Kook Sang Oh, Weber AL, Borden S (1971) Normal mediastinal mass in late childhood. Radiology 101: 625
Kornstein MJ, Brooks JJ, Anderson LO, Levinson AI, Lisak RP, Zweiman B (1984) The immunohistology of the thymus in myasthenia gravis. Am J Pathol 117: 184
Kuzmenko LG (1986) The subsequent case-history of thymomegalic pediatric patients. Pediatrija (Mosk) 12: 31
Lack EE (1981) Thymic hyperplasia with massive enlargement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 81: 741
Lamesch AJ (1983) Massive thymic hyperplasia in infants. Z Kinderchir 38: 16
Lamesch AJ, Capesius C, Theisen-Aspesberro MC (1974) Cervical thymic cysts in infants and children. Z Kinderchir 14: 213
Lanning R, Heikkinen E (1980) Thymus simulating left upper lobe atelectasis. Pediatr Radiol 9: 177
Law LW (1966) Studies of thymic function with emphasis on the role of the thymus in oncogenesis. Cancer Res 26: 551
Lee Y, Moallem S, Clauss RH (1979) Massive hyperplastic thymus in a 22-month-old infant. Ann Thorac Surg 27: 356
Leinisch HD (1963) Untersuchungen zur topographischen Anatomie des Thymus in Beziehung zum plötzlichen Säuglingstod. Thesis, Erlangen
Levine GD, Rosai J (1978) Thymic hyperplasia and neoplasia: a review of current concepts. Hum Pathol 9: 495
Mitchell-Nelson, ed by Nelson EW (1945) Textbook of pediatrics, 4th edn. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, p 925
Moore AV, Korobkin M, Powers B et al. (1982) Thymoma detection by mediastinal CT: patients with myasthenia gravis. AJR 138: 217
Moore AV, Korobkin M, Olanow W, Heaston DK, Ram PC, Dunnick NR, Silverman PM (1983) Age-related changes in the thymus gland: CT-pathologic correlation. AJR 141: 241
Müller-Hermelink H-K (ed) (1986) The human thymus. Histophysiology and pathology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York (Current topics in pathology, vol 75)
Newton WA, Hamondi AB, Shannon BT (1987) Role of the thymus in histiocytosis-X. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 1: 63
Nezelof C, Normand C (1986) Tumor-like massive thymic hyperplasia in childhood: a possible defect of T-cell maturation, histological and cytoenzymatic studies of three cases. Thymus 8: 117
Nicholson RL (1978) Thymic hyperplasia in thyrotoxicosis. J Can Assoc Radiol 29: 264
Oliva L (1973) Erkrankungen des Mediastinums. In: Schinz HR, Baensch WE, Frommhold W, Glauner R, Uehlinger E, Wellauer J (eds) Lehrbuch der Röntgendiagnostik, vol IV/2, 6th edn. Pleura, Mediastinum und Lunge. Thieme, Stuttgart
O’Shea PA, Pansatiankul B, Farnes P (1978) Giant thymic hyperplasia in infancy: immunologic, histologic, and ultrastructural observations. Lab Invest 38: 391
Otto HF (1984) Pathologie des Thymus. In: Doerr W, Seifert G, Uehlinger E (eds) Spezielle pathologische Anatomie, vol 17, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Paltauf A (1910) Erkrankungen des Thymus, Status lymphaticus und plötzliche Todesfälle. In: Pfaundler M von, Schlossmann A (eds) Handbuch der Kinderheilkunde, 2nd edn, vol 3. FCW Vogel, Leipzig, p 448
Pardo-Mindan FJ, Crisci CD, Serrano M, Arcas R (1980) Immunological aspects of sarcoidosis with true thymic hyperplasia. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 8: 91
Parker LA, Gaisie G, Scatliff JH (1985) Computed tomography and ultrasonographic findings in massive thymic hyperplasia. Clin Pediatr 24: 90
Pfaundler M von (1948) Pathologie des Blutes und der Blutungsbereitschaft. In: Feer E, Kleinschmidt H (eds) 4. Lehrbuch der Kinderheilkunde, 16th edn. Fischer, Jena, p 167
Pokorny WJ, Sherman JO (1974) Mediastinal masses in infants and children. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 68: 869
Potter EL, Craig JM (1975) Pathology of the fetus and infant, 3rd edn. Year Book Medical, Chicago, p 321
Rasore-Quartino A, Rebizzo F, Romagnoli G (1979) Iperplasia gigante del timo nell’infanzia. Pathologica 71: 711
Rizk G, Cueto L, Amplatz K (1972) Rebound enlargement of the thymus after successful corrective surgery for transposition of the great vessels. AJR 116: 528
Rosai J, Devine GD (1976) Tumors of the thymus. In: Atlas of tumor pathology, 2nd series, fasc 13. Washington DC. Armed Forces Institute of Pathology p 26–33; 133–137
Rose JS, Lam C (1982) Thymic enlargement in association with hyperthyroidism. Pediatr Radiol 12: 37
Saegesser F, Zoupanos G (1970) Thymomas, tumors of the thymic site, and the paraneoplastic immunological syndromes associated with them. In: Saegesser F, Pattavee J (eds) Surgical oncology. Hans Huber, Bern (Current problems in surgery, vol 14, p 447)
Sato T, Tamaoki N (1989) Myoid cell in the human thymus and thymoma revealed by three different immunohisto-chemical markers for striated muscle. Acta Pathol Jpn 39: 509
Scadding GK, Vincent A, Newsom-Davis J, Henry K (1981) Acetylcholine receptor antibody synthesis by thymic lymphocytes: correlation with thymic histology. Neurology 31: 935
Scheiff JM, Cordier AC, Haumont S (1977) Epithelial cell proliferation in thymic hyperplasia induced by triiodothyronine. Clin Exp Immunol 27: 516
Schmid PC (1956) Thymushyperplasie oder Oberlappenatelektase? ROFO 84: 20
Schnell VY (1975) Probleme der Thymusdiagnostik bei atypischer Lage und seltenen Begleitumständen. Thesis, Cologne
Schnyder P, Candardjis G (1987) Computed tomography of thymic abnormalities. Eur J Radiol 7: 107
Schramm H, Danz M, Bartel M (1968) Klinik und Morphologie thymogener Mediastinaltumoren. Med Bild 11: 83
Sealy WC, Weaver WL, Young WG (1965) Severe airway obstruction in infancy due to thymus gland. Ann Thorac Surg 1: 389
Shackelford GD, McAlister WH (1974) The aberrantly positioned thymus. A cause of mediastinal or neck masses in children. AJR 120: 291
Shin MS, Ho KJ (1983) Diffuse thymic hyperplasia following chemotherapy for nodular sclerosing Hodgkin’s disease. Cancer 51: 30
Shuangshoti S, Seksarn P (1987) Histiocytosis X: overlapping form between Letterer-Siwe disease and Hand-Schüller-Christian disease with advanced thymic involvement and obstructive jaundice. J Med Assoc Thai 70: 344
Siegel MJ, Sagel SS, Reed K (1982) The value of computed tomography in the diagnosis and management of pediatric mediastinal abnormalities. Radiology 142: 149
Siegel MJ, Glazer HS, Wiener JI, Molina PL (1989) Normal and abnormal thymus in childhood: MR imaging. Radiology 172: 367
Silverman NA, Sabiston DC Jr (1980) Mediastinal masses. Surg Clin North Am 60: 757
Silverman FN (1985) Caffey’s Pediatric X-ray diagnosis: an integrated imaging approach, 8th edn. Year Book Med Publ, Chicago
Slowikowski J, Kubrakiewicz Z, Zielinski S (1968) Giant hypertrophy of the thymus in three siblings. Pol Med J 7: 634
Sone S, Higashihara T, Morimoto S et al. (1980) Normal anatomy of the thymus and anterior mediastinum by pneumomediastinography. AJR 134: 81
Strobl K (1985) Congenitaler und erworbener kindlicher Stridor und seine radiologische Abklärung. Thesis, Cologne
Szakáll S (1973) Zur Bedeutung der Thymushyperplasie im Säuglings- und Kleinkindesalter. Pädiatr Grenzgeb 12: 337
Tait D, Goldstraw P, Husband J (1986) Thymic rebound in an adult following chemotherapy for testicular cancer. Eur J Surg Oncol 12: 385
Tartas NE, Korin J, Dengra CS, Barazutti LM, Blasetti A, Avalos JCS (1985) Diffuse thymic enlargement in Hodgkin’s disease. JAMA 19: 406
Tesseraux H (1953) Physiologie und Pathologie des Thymus unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der pathologischen Morphologie. Barth, Leipzig
Thal W (1972) Kinderbronchologie. Barth, Leipzig, p 187
Thomas E, Kochenrath J (1922) Zur Klinik des Säuglings-Stridors. Z Hals-Nasen-Ohrenheilkd 1: 34
Thomas JA, Willcox HNA, Newsom-Davis J (1982) Immunohistological studies of the thymus in myasthenia gravis: correlation with clinical state and thymocyte culture responses. J Neuroimmunol 3: 319
Thomas NB, Gupta SC (1988) Unilobar enlargement of normal thymus gland causing mass effect. Br J Radiol 61: 244
Thurmond AS, Brasch RC (1978) Radiologic evaluation of the thymus in juvenile myasthenia gravis. Pediatr Radiol 7: 136
Tischer W (1967) Diagnostische und therapeutische Möglichkeiten bei Thymushyperplasie im Säuglingsalter. Kin-derärztl Prax 35: 333
Tobisu K, Kakizoe T, Takai K, Matsumoto K, Tsuchiya R (1987) Thymic enlargement following treatment for a metastatic germ cell tumor. A case report. J Urol 137: 520
Tridente G (1985) Immunopathology of the human thymus. Semin Hematol 22: 56
van Herle AJ, Chopra IJ (1971) Thymic hyperplasia in Graves’ disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32: 140
von Lengerke HJ, Schmidt H (1988) Mediastinal-Sonographie im Kindesalter. Ergebnisse bei 310 Untersuchungen. Radiologe 28: 460
Waldbott GL (1934) So-called “thymic death”: pathologic process in 34 cases. Am J Dis Child 47: 41
Walter E, Hübener K-H (1980) Computertomographische Charakteristika raumfordernder Prozesse im vorderen Mediastinum und ihre Differentialdiagnose. ROFO 133: 391
Whittaker/LD, Lynn HB (1973) Mediastinal tumors and cysts in the pediatric patient. Surg Clin North Am 53: 893
Willich E (1975) Mediastinalpleuritis. Pädiatr Prax 15: 45
Woodhead PJ (1984) Thymic enlargement following chemotherapy. Br J Radiol 57: 932
Wychulis AR, Payne WS, Clagett OT, Woolner LB (1971) Surgical treatment of mediastinal tumors. J Thorac Car-diovasc Surg 62: 379
Yulish BS, Owens RP (1980) Thymic enlargement in a child during therapy for primary hypothyroidism. AJR 135: 157
Zsebök Z (1958) Röntgenanatomie der Neugeborenenund Säuglingslunge. Thieme, Stuttgart, p 118
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1992 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Willich, E., Walter, E., Otto, H.F., Hofmann, W.J. (1992). Developmental Abnormalities of the Thymus. In: Walter, E., Willich, E., Webb, W.R. (eds) The Thymus. Medical Radiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-84192-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-84192-7_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-84194-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-84192-7
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive