Abstract
Apoptosis is a form of cell death critical for the normal development of multicellular organisms (Kerr et al. 1972; Wyllie et al. 1980). It is characterized by morphological and biochemical criteria consisting of: nuclear shrinkage, chromatin condensation, cytoplasmic blebbing, and internucleosomal DNA fragmentation (Kerr et al. 1972; Wyllie et al. 1980; Cohen and Duke 1992). As opposed to other forms of cell death, apoptosis does not induce an inflammatory response. There are a number of ways by which cell death by apoptosis can be induced, including growth factor deprivation, cytokine treatment, antigen-receptor engagement, cell-cell interactions, irradiation, and glucocorticoids (Cohen and Duke 1992). Within the immune system, the regulation of cell death appears to be crucial for the prevention of autoimmune disease. Immature lymphocytes are particularly susceptible to apoptosis, as 95% of thymocytes die in situ during development. Self-reactive lymphocytes are eliminated from the immune repertoire following engagement of their antigen-specific receptors. Thus, the process of clonal deletion by apoptosis allows for the elimination of self-reactive lymphocytes without initiating an inflammatory response.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Allsopp TE, Wyatt S, Paterson HF, Davies AM (1993) The proto-oncogene bcl-2 can selectively rescue neurotrophic factor-dependent neurons from apoptosis. Cell 73: 295–307
Bakhshi A, Jensen JP, Goldman P, Wright JJ, McBride OW, Epstein AL, Korsmeyer SJ (1985) Cloning of the chromosomal breakpoint of t(14; 18) human lymphomas: clustering around JH on chromosome 14 and near a transcriptional unit on 18. Cell 41: 899–906
Benhamou LE, Cazenave PA, Sarthou P (1990) Anti-immunoglobulins induce death by apoptosis in WEHI-231 B lymphoma cells. Eur J Immunol 20: 1405–1407
Bierer BE, Mattila PS, Standaert RF, Herzenberg LA, Burakoff SJ, Crabtree G, Schreiber SL (1990) Two distinct signal transmission pathways in T lymphocytes are inhibited by complexes formed between an immunophilin and either FK506 or rapamycin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87: 9231–9235
Bissonnette RP, Echeverri F, Mahboubi A, Green DR (1992) Apoptotic cell death induced by c-myc is inhibited by bcl-2. Nature 359: 552–554
Boise LH, González-Garcia M, Postema CE, Ding L, Lindsten T, Turka LA, Mao X, Nuñez G, Thompson CB (1993) bcl-x, a bcl-2-related gene that functions as a dominant regulator of apoptotic cell death. Cell 74: 597–608
Chen-Levy Z, Cleary ML (1990) Membrane topology of the Bcl-2 proto-oncogene protein demonstrated in vitro. J Biol Chem 265: 4929–4933
Chen-Levy Z, Nourse J, Geary ML (1989) The bcl-2 candidate proto-oncogene product is a 24-kilodalton intergral membrane protein highly expressed in lymphoid cell lines and lymphomas carrying the t(14;18) translocation. Mol Cell Biol 9: 701–710
Chiou S K, Rao L, White E (1994) Bcl-2 blocks p53-dependent apoptosis. Mol Cell Biol 14: 2556–2563
Clarke AR, Purdie CA, Harrison DJ, Morris RG, Bird CC, Hooper ML, Wyllie AH (1993) Thymocyte apoptosis induced by p53-dependent and independent pathways. Nature 362: 849–852
Cleary ML, Smith SD, Sklar J (1986) Cloning and structural analysis of cDNAs for bcl 2 and the hybrid bcl-2/immunoglobulin transcript resulting from the t(14; 18) translocation. Cell 47: 19–28
Cleq-Deschamps CM, LeBrun DP, Huie P, Besnier DP, Warnke RA, Sibley RK, Cleary ML (1993) Topographical dissociation of Bcl-2 messenger RNA and protein expression in human lymphoid tissues. Blood 81: 293–298
Cohen JJ, Duke RC (1992) Apoptosis and programmed cell death in immunity. Annu Rev Immunol 10: 2676–293
Cuende E, Ales-Martinez JE, Ding L, Gonzalez-Garcia M, Martinez AC, Nuñez G (1993) Progammed cell death by bcl-2-dependent and independent mechanisms in B lymphoma cells. EMBO J 12: 1555–1560
Debbas M, White E (1993) Wild-type p53 mediates apoptosis by E1 A, which is inhibited by E1B. Genes Dev 7: 546–554
de Jong D, Prins F, van Krieken HHJM, Mason DY, van Ommen GB, Kluin PM (1992) Subcellular localization of bcl-2 protein. In: Potter M, Melchers F (eds) Mechanisms in B-cell neoplasia. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 287–292 (Current topics in microbiology and immunology, vol 182)
Deng G, Podack ER (1993) Suppression of apoptosis in a cytotoxic T-cell line by interleukin 2-mediated gene transcription and deregulated expression of the protooncogene bcl-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:2189–2193
Ellis HM, Horvitz HR (1986) Genetic control of programmed cell death in the nematode C. elegans. Cell 44:817–829
Fanidi A, Harrington EA, Evan GI (1992) Cooperative interaction between c-myc and bcl-2 proto-oncogenes. Nature 359: 554–556
Gagliardi V, Fernandez P-A, Lee RKK, Drexler HCA, Roteilo RJ, Fishman MC (1994) Prevention of vertebrate neuronal death by the crmA gene. Science 263: 826–828
Garcia I, Martinou I, Tsujimoto Y, Martinou JC (1992) Prevention of programmed cell death of sympathetic neurons by the bcl-2 proto-oncogene. Science 258: 302–304
Gottschalk AR, McShan CL, Merino R, Nuñez G, Quintáns J (1994a) Physiological cell death in B lymphocytes: I. Differential susceptibility of WEHI-231 sublines to anti-lg induced physiological cell death and lack of correlation with bcl-2 expression. Int Immunol 6: 121–130
Gottschalk AR, Boise LH, Thompson CB, Quintans J (1994b) Identification of immunosuppressant-induced apoptosis in murine B cell lines and its prevention by bcl-x but not bcl-2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 7350–7354
Gratiot-Deans J, Ding L, Turka LA, Nuñez G (1993) bcl-2 proto-oncogene expression during human T cell development. J Immunol 151: 83–91
Haggerty HG, Wechsler RJ, Lentz VM, Monroe JG (1993) Endogenous expression of δ on the surface of WEHI-231. J Immunol 151: 4681–4693
Hasbold J, Klaus GGB (1990) Anti-immunoglobulin antibodies induce apoptosis in immature B cell lymphomas. Eur J Immunol 20: 1685–1690
Henderson S, Rowe M, Gregory CD, Croom-Carter D, Wang F, Kieff E, Rickinson AB (1991) Induction of bcl-2 expression by Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 protects infected B cells from programmed cell death. Cell 65: 1107–1115
Henderson S, Huen D, Rowe M, Dawson C, Johnson G, Rickinson A (1993) Epstein-Barr virus-encoded BHRF1 protein, a viral homologue of Bcl-2, protects human B cells from programmed cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 8479–8483
Hengartner MO, Ellis RE, Horvitz HR (1992) Caenorhabditis elegans gene ced-9 protects cells from programmed cell death. Nature 356: 494–499
Hengartner MO, Horvitz HR (1994) C. elegans cell survival gene ced-9 encodes a functional homolog of the mammalian proto-oncogene bcl-2. Cell 76: 665–676
Hennet T, Bertoni G, Richter C, Peterhans E (1993) Expression of Bcl-2 protein enhances the survival of mouse fibrosarcoid cells in tumor necrosis factor-mediated cytotoxcity. Cancer Res 53: 1456–1460
Hockenbery D, Nuñez G, Milliman C, Schreiber RD, Korsmeyer SJ (1990) Bcl-2 is an inner mitochondrial membrane protein that blocks programmed cell death. Nature 348: 334–336
Hockenbery DM, Oltvai ZN, Yin XM, Milliman CL, Korsmeyer SJ (1993) Bcl-2 functions in an antioxidant pathway to prevent apoptosis. Cell 75: 241–251
Itoh N, Yonehara S, Ishii A, Yonehara M, Mizushima S-I, Sameshima M, Hase A, Seto Y, Nagata S (1991) The polypeptide encoded by the cDNA for human cell surface antigen Fas can mediate apoptosis. Cell 66: 233–243
Itoh N, Tsujimoto Y, Nagata S (1993) Effect of bcl-2 on Fas antigen-mediated cell death. J Immunol 151: 621–627
Kane DJ, Sarafian TA, Anton R, Hahn H, Gralla EB, Valentine JS, Örd T, Bredesen, DE (1993) Bcl-2 inhibition of neural death: decreased generation of reactive oxygen species. Science 262: 1274–1277
Katsumata M, Seigel RM, Louie DC, Miyashita T, Tsujimoto Y, Nowell PC, Greene Ml, Reed JC (1992) Differential effects of Bcl-2 on T and B cells in transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 11376–11380
Kerr JFR, Wyllie AH, Currie AR (1972) Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br J Cancer 26: 239–257
Kondo E, Nakamura S, Onoue H, Matsuo Y, Yoshino T, Aoki H, Hayashi K, Takahashi K, Minowada J, Nomura S, Akagi T (1992) Detection of bcl-2 protein and bcl-2 messenger RNA in normal and neoplastic lymphoid tissues by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Blood 80: 2044–2051
Korsmeyer SJ, McDonnell TJ, Nunez G, Hockenbery D, Young R (1990) Bcl-2: B cell life, death and neoplasia. In: Potter M, Melchers F (eds) Mechanisms in B-cell neoplasia 1990. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp 203–207 (Current topics in Microbiology and immunology, vol 166)
Kozopas KM, Yang T, Buchan HL, Zhou P, Craig RW (1993) MCL1, a gene expressed in programmed myeloid cell differentiation, has sequence similarity to BCL2. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 3516–3520
Lee M-A, Yates JL (1992) BHRF1 of Epstein-Barr virus, which is homologous to human proto-oncogene bcl2, is not essential for transformation of B cells or for virus replication in vitro. J Virol 66: 1899–1906
Lin EY, Orlofsky A, Berger MS, Prystowsky (1993) Characterization of A1, a novel hemopoietic-specific early-response gene with sequence similarity to bcl-2. J Immunol 151: 1979–1988
Liu Y-J, Mason DY, Johnson GD, Abbot S, Gregory CD, Hardie DL, Gordon J, MacLennan ICM (1991) Germinal center B cells express bcl-2 protein after activation by signals which prevent their entry into apoptosis. Eur J Immunol 21: 1905–1910
Lowe SW, Schmitt EM, Smith SW, Osborne BA, Jacks T (1993) p53 is required for radiation-induced apoptosis in mouse thymoytes. Nature 362: 847–849
Marchini A, Tomkinson B, Cohen JI, Kieff E (1991) BHRF1, the Epstein-Barr virus gene with homology to Bcl2 is dispensable for B-lymphocyte transformation and virus replication. J Virol 65: 5991–6000
Martz E, Howell DM (1989) CTL: virus control cells first and cytolytic cells second? DNA fragmentation, apoptosis and the prelytic halt hypothesis. Immunol Today 10: 79–86
McDonnell TJ, Deane N, Platt FM, Nunez G, Jaeger U, McKearn JP, Korsmeyer SJ (1989) bcl-2-immunoglobulin transgenic mice demonstrate extended B cell survival and follicular lymphoproliferation. Cell 57: 79–88
McDonnell TJ, Nunez G, Platt FM, Hockenberry D, London L, McKearn JP, Korsmeyer SJ (1990) Deregulated Bcl-2-immunoglobulin transgene expands a resting but responsive immunoglobulin M and D-expressing B-cell population. Mol Cell Biol 10: 1901–1907
Merino R, Ding L, Veis DJ, Korsmeyer SJ, Nuñez G (1994) Developmental regulation of the Bcl-2 protein and susceptibility to cell death in B lymphocytes. EMBO J 13: 683–691
Miura M, Zhu H, Roteilo R, Hartwieg EA, Yuan J (1993) Induction of apoptosis in fibroblasts by IL-1β-coverting enzyme, a mammalian homolog of the C. elegans cell death gene ced-3. Cell 75: 653–660
Miyashita T, Reed JC (1992) bcl-2 gene transfer increases relative resistance of S49.1 and WEHI7.2 lymphoid cell to cell death and DNA fragmentation induced by glucocorticoids and multiple chemothrapeutic drugs. Cancer Res 52: 5407–5411
Nakayama K-I, Nakayama K, Negishi I, Kuida K, Shinkai Y, Louie MC, Fields LE, Lucas PJ, Stewart V, Alt FW, Loh DY (1993) Disappearance of the lymphoid system in Bcl-2 homozygous mutant chimeric mice. Science 261: 1584–1588
Neilan JG, Lu Z, Afonso CL, Kutish GF, Sussman MD, Rock DL (1993) An African swine fever virus gene with similarity to the proto-oncogene bcl-2 and the Epstein-Barr virus gene BHRF1. J Virol 67: 4391–4394
Nuñez G, London L, Hockenbery D, Alexander M, McKearn JP, Korsmeyer SJ (1990) Deregulated Bcl-2 gene expression selectively prolongs survival of growth factor-deprived hemopoietic cell lines. J Immunol 144: 3602–3610
Nuñez G, Hockenbery D, McDonnell TJ, Sorensen CM, Korsmeyer SJ (1991) Bcl-2 maintains B cell memory. Nature 353: 71–73
Ohmori T, Podack ER, Nishio K, Takahashi M, Miyahara Y, Takeda Y, Kubota N, Funayama Y, Ogasawara H, Ohira T, Ohta S, Saijo N (1993) Apoptosis of lung cancer cells caused by some anticancer agents (MMC, CPT-11, ADM) is inhibited by BCL-2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 192: 30–36
Oltvai ZN, Milliman CL, Korsmeyer SJ (1993) Bcl-2 heterodimerizes in vivo with a conserved homolog, Bax, that accelerates programed cell death. Cell 74: 609–619
Ray CA, Black RA, Kronheim SR, Greenstreet TA, Sleath PR, Salvesen GS, Pickup DJ (1992) Viral inhibition of inflammation: cowpox virus encodes an inhibitor of the interleukin-1β converting enzyme. Cell 69: 597–604
Reed JC, Tsujimoto Y, Alpers JD, Croce CM, Nowell PC (1987) Regulation of bcl-2 proto-oncogene during normal human lymphocyte proliferation. Science 236: 1295–1299
Reed JC, Miyashita T, Cuddy M, Cho D (1992) Regulation of p26-Bcl-2 protein levels in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. Lab Invest 67: 443–449
Russell JH, Masakowski V, Rucinsky T, Phillips G (1982) Mechanisms of immune lysis III. Characterization of the nature and kinetics of the cytotoxic T lymphocyte-induced nuclear lesion in the target. J Immunol 128: 2087–2094
Sentman CL, Shutter JR, Hockenbery D, Kanagawa O, Korsmeyer SJ (1991) bcl-2 inihibits multiple forms of apoptosis but not negative selection in thymocytes. Cell 67: 879–888
Shi Y, Sahai BM, Green DR (1989) Cyclosporin A inhibits activation-induced cell death in T-cell hybridomas and thymocytes. Nature 339: 625–626
Siegal RM, Katsumata M, Miyashita T, Louie DC, Greene Ml, Reed JC (1992) Inhibition of thymocyte apoptosis and negative antigenic selection in bcl-2 transgenic mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 7003–7007
Sigal NH, Dumont FJ (1992) Cyclosporin A, FK-506, and rapamycin: pharmacologic probes of lymphocyte signal transduction. Annu Rev Immunol 10: 519–560
Staruch MJ, Sigal NH, Dumont FJ (1991) Differential effects of the immunosuppressive macrolides FK-506 and rapamycin on activation-induced T-cell apoptosis. Int J Immunopharmacol 13: 677–685
Strasser A, Harris AW, Cory S (1991a) bcl-2 transgene inhibits T cell death and perturbs thymic self-censorship. Cell 67: 889–899
Strasser A, Whittingham S, Vaux DL, Bath ML, Adams JM, Cory S, Harris AW (1991b) Enforced BCL2 expression in B-lymphoid cells prolongs antibody responses and elicits autoimmune disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 8661–8665
Strasser A, Harris AW, Corcoran LM, Cory S (1994) Bcl-2 expression promotes B-but not T-lymphoid development in scid mice. Nature 368: 457–460
Tao W, Teh S-J, Melhado I, Jirik F, Korsmeyer SJ, Teh H-S (1994) The T cell receptor repetoire of CD4–8+ thymocytes is altered by overexpression of the BCL-2 protooncogene in the thymus. J Exp Med 179: 145–153
Tsujimoto Y, Croce CM (1986) Analysis of the structure, transcripts, and protein products of bcl-2, the gene involved in human follicular lymphoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83: 5214–5218
Tsujimoto Y, Finger LR, Yunis J, Nowell PC, Croce CM (1984) Cloning of the chromosomes breakpoint of neoplastic B cells with the t(14;18) chromosome translocation. Science 226: 1097–1099
Vanhaesebroeck B, Reed JC, De Valck D, Grooten J, Miyashita T, Tanaka S, Beyaert R, Van Roy F, Fiers W (1993) Effect of bcl-2 proto-oncogene expression on cellular sensitivity to tumor necrosis factor-mediated cytotoxicity. Oncogene 8: 1075–1081
Vaux DL, Cory S, Adams JM (1988) Bcl-2 gene promotes haemopoietic cell survival and cooperates with c-myc to immortalize pre-B cells. Nature 335: 440–442
Vaux DL, Aguila HL, Weissman IL (1992a) Bcl-2 prevents death of factor-deprived cells but fails to prevent apoptosis in targets of cell mediated killing. Int Immunol 7: 821–824
Vaux DL, Weissman IL, Kim SK (1992b) Prevention of programmed cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans by human bcl-2. Science 258: 1955–1957
Veis DJ, Sentman CL, Bach EA, Korsmeyer SJ (1993a) Expression of the Bcl-2 protein in murine and human thymocytes and in peripheral T lymphocytes. J Immunol 151: 2546–2554
Veis DJ, Sorenson CM, Shutter JR, Korsmeyer SJ (1993b) Bcl-2-deficient mice demonstrate fulminant lymphoid apoptosis, polycystic kidneys, and hypopigmented hair. Cell 75: 229–240
Wagner AJ, Small MB, Hay N (1993) Myc-mediated apoptosis is blocked by ectopic expression of Bcl-2. Mol Cell Biol 13: 2432–2440
Walton MI, Whysong D, O’Conner PM, Hockenbery D, Korsmeyer SJ, Kohn KW (1993) Constitutive expression of human Bcl-2 modulates nitrogen mustard and camptothecin induced apoptosis. Cancer Res 53: 1853–1861
Watanabe-Fukunaga R, Brannan CI, Copeland NG, Jenkins NA, Nagata S (1992) Lymphoproliferation disorder in mice explained by defects in Fas antigen that mediates apoptosis. Nature 356: 314–317
Williams GT, Smith CA (1993) Molecular regulation of apoptosis: genetic controls on cell death. Cell 74: 777–779
Wyllie AH, Kerr JFR, Currie AR (1980) Cell death: significance of apoptosis. Int Rev Cytol 68: 251–306
Yonish-Rouach E, Resnitzky D, Lotem J, Sachs L, Kimchi A, Oren M (1991) Wild-type p53 induces apoptosis of myeloid leukaemic cells that is inhibited by interleukin-6. Nature 352: 345–347
Yuan J, Horvitz HR (1990) The Caenorhabditis elegans genes ced-3 and ced-4 act cell autonomously to cause programmed cell death. Dev Biol 138: 33–41
Yuan J, Sharam S, Ledoux S, Ellis HM, Horvitz HR (1993) The C. elegans cell death gene ced-3 encodes a protein similar to mammalian interleukin-1β-converting enzyme. Cell 75: 641–652
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1995 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Boise, L.H., Gottschalk, A.R., Quintáns, J., Thompson, C.B. (1995). Bcl-2 and Bcl-2-Related Proteins in Apoptosis Regulation. In: Kroemer, G., Martinez-A., C. (eds) Apoptosis in Immunology. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 200. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-79437-7_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-79437-7_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-79439-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-79437-7
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive