Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Female Contraception pp 21–55Cite as

Analysis of Oral Contraceptive Risks

  • Conference paper

  • 152 Accesses

Abstract

The important concern regarding cancer and pill use will be initially addressed with a special review of some of the important studies, focusing on their strengths and weaknesses, and suggesting that new concepts regarding pill use as, for example, “unmasking” rather than “inducing” certain cancers may be evolving. The formulation of the oral contraceptive has an important bearing on the production of metabolic effects; therefore, some observations about the composition, structure-function relationships, pharmacokinetic properties in terms of absorption, bioavailability, metabolism, and potency of the individual constituents of the currently and soon to be available pills will be made. A selected review will be presented of the clinical effects of reducing dosage and changing schedules (monophasic versus phasic), their corresponding metabolic effects on various important systems (notably, the cardiovascular system), the importance of smoking as a confounder in the analysis of data regarding cervical cancer, cardiovascular disease, and infertility, and the growing concern regarding the interaction with sexually transmitted diseases leading to cancer or to infertility.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. IMS America (1987) National Prescription Audit. IMS America, Ambler

    Google Scholar 

  2. Russel-Briefel R, Ezzati T, Perlman J (1985) Prevalence and trends in oral contraceptive use in premenopausal females aged 12–54 years, United States 1971–1980. Am J Public Health 75:11713

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Tyrer LB (1984) Oral contraception for the adolescent. J Reprod Med 29:551

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Pike MC, Henderson BE, Casagrande JT, Rosario I, Gray GE (1981) Oral contraceptive use and early abortion as risk factors for breast cancer in young women. Br J Cancer 43:72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Silverberg SG, Makowski EL (1975) Endometrial carcinoma in young women taking oral contraceptive agents. Obstet Gynecol 46:503

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Centers for Disease Control (1983) Oral contraceptive use and the risk of endometrial cancer. JAMA 249:1600

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Henderson BE, Casagrande JT, Pike MC, Mack T, Rosario I, Duke A (1983) The epidemiology of endometrial cancer in young women. Br J Cancer 47:749

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Weiss NS, Sayvetz TA (1980) Incidence of endometrial cancer in relation to the use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 302:551

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kaufman DW, Shapiro S, Slone D, Rosenberg L, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD, Knapp RC et al. (1980) Decreased risk of endometrial cancer among oral contraceptive users. N Engl J Med 303:1045

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Kelsey JL, Li Volsi VA, Holford TR, Fischer DB, Mostow ED, Schwartz PE, O’Connor T, White C (1982) A case-control study of cancer of the endometrium. Am J Epidemiol 116:333

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Hulka BS, Chambless LE, Kaufman DG, Fowler WC, Greenberg BG (1982) Protection against endometrial carcinoma by combination-product oral contraceptives. JAMA 247:475

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Ramcharan S, Pellegrin FA, Ray R, et al. (1981) In: The Walnut Creek Contraceptive Drug Study. A prospective study of the side effects of oral contraceptives. US Department of Health and Human Services, National Population Research, Bethesda (NIH publication 81–564, vol 3)

    Google Scholar 

  13. Centers for Disease Control (1987) Combination oral contraceptive use and the risk of endometrial cancer. JAMA 257:796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Newhouse ML, Pearson RM, Fullerton JM, Boesen EAM, Shannon HS (1972) A case control study of carcinoma of the ovary. Br J Prev Soc Med 31:148

    Google Scholar 

  15. McGowan L, Parent L, Lednar W, Norris HJ (1979) The woman at risk for developing ovarian cancer. Gynecol Oncol 7:325

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Casagrande JT, Louie EW, Pike MC, Roy S, Ross RK, Henderson BE (1979) “Incessant ovulation” and ovarian cancer. Lancet 2:170

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Hildreth NG, Kelsey JL, Li Volsi VA, Fischer DB, Holford TR, Mostow ED, Schwartz PE, White C (1981) An epidemiological study of epithelial carcinoma of the ovary. Am J Epidemiol 114:398

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Willett WC, Bain C, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Speizer FE (1981) Oral contraceptives and risk of ovarian cancer. Cancer 48:1684

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Franceschi S, LaVecchia C, Helmrich SP, Mangioni C, Tognoni G (1982) Risk factors for epithelial ovarian cancer in Italy. AM J Epidemiol 115:714

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Rosenberg L, Shapiro S, Slone D, Kaufman DW, Helmrich SP, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD, et al. (1982) Epithelial ovarian cancer and combination oral contraceptives. JAMA 247:3210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Risch HA, Weiss NS, Lyone JL, Daling JR, Liff JM (1983) Events of reproductive life and the incidence of epithelial ovarian cancer. Am J Epidemiol 177:128

    Google Scholar 

  22. Cramer DW, Hutchinson GB, Welch WR, Scully RE, Knapp RC (1982) Factors affecting the association of oral contraceptives and ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med 307:1047

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Centers for Disease Control (1983) Oral contraceptive use and the risk of ovarian cancer. JAMA 249:1596

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Kelsey JL, Hildreth NG (1983) Breast and gynecologic cancer epidemiology. CRC, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  25. Editorial (1985) Another look at the pill and breast cancer. Lancet 2:985

    Google Scholar 

  26. Stadel BV, Rubin GL, Wingo PA, Schlesselman J J (1986) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer in young women (letter). Lancet 1:436

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. McPherson K, Coope PA (1986) Early oral contraceptive use and breast cancer risk (letter). Lancet 1:685

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Vessey MP, Doll R, Jones K, McPherson K, Yeates D (1979) An epidemiological study of oral contraceptives and breast cancer. Br Med J 1:1755

    Google Scholar 

  29. Jick H, Walker AM, Watkins RN, d’Ewart DC, Hunter JR, et al. (1980) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 112:577

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Royal College of General Practitioners (1981) Breast cancer and oral contraceptives. Findings in Royal College of General Practitioners’ study. Br Med J 282:2089

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Brinton LA, Hoover R, Szklo M, Fraumeni JF (1982) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. Int J Epidemiol 11:316

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Lipnick RJ, Buring JE, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Willett W, et al. (1986) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer: a prospective cohort study. JAMA 255:58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Centers for Disease Control (1983) Long-term oral contraceptive use and the risk of breast cancer. JAMA 249:1591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Stadel BV, Webster LA, Rubin GL, Schlesselman JJ, Wingo PA (1985) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer in young women. Lancet 2:970

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Rosenberg L, Miller DR, Kaufman DW, Helmrich SP, Stolley PD, et al. (1984) Breast cancer and oral contraceptive use. Am J Epidemiol 119:167

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Miller DR, Rosenberg L, Kaufman DW, Schottenfeld D, Stolley PD, et al. (1986) Breast cancer risk in relation to early oral contraceptive use. Obstet Gynecol 68:863

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Vessey MP, McPherson K, Yeates D, Doll R (1982) Oral contraceptive use and abortion before first term pregnancy in relation to breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer 45:327

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. McPherson K, Neil A, Vessey MP, Doll R (1983) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer (letter). Lancet 2:1414

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Pike MC, Henderson BE, Krailo MD, Duke A, Roy S (1983) Breast cancer in young women and use of oral contraceptives: possible modifying effect of formulation and age at use. Lancet 2:916

    Google Scholar 

  40. Paul C, Skegg DCG, Spears GFS, Kaldor JM (1986) Oral contraceptives and breast cancer: a national study. Br Med J 293:723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Meirik O, Lund E, Adami HO, Bergstrom R, Christoffersen R, et al. (1986) Oral contraceptive use and breast cancer in young women. Lancet 2:650

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Hoover R, Bain C, Cole P, MacMahon B (1978) Oral contraceptive use: association with frequency of hospitalization and chronic disease risk indicators. Am J Public Health 68:335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Le MG, Hill C, Kramer A, Moulton LH (1985) Possible cohort effects in studies of oral contraceptive use and breast cancer (letter). Br J Cancer 52:805

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. McPherson K, Drife JO (1986) The pill and breast cancer: why the uncertainty? Br Med J 293:709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Vihko R, Apter D (1984) Endocrine characteristics of adolescent menstrual cycles: impact of early menarche. J Steroid Biochem 20:231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Apter D, Raisanen I, Ylostalo P, Vihko R (1985) Ultrasonographic and hormonal patterns of adolescent menstrual cycles. 15th Acta Endocrinologica Congress, August, Helsinki

    Google Scholar 

  47. Thomas DB (1972) Relationship of oral contraceptives to cervical carcinogenesis. Obstet Gynecol 40:508

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Boyce JG, Lu T, Nelson JH, Fruchter RG (1977) Oral contraceptives and cervical carcinoma. Am J Obstet Gynecol 128:761

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Swan SH, Brown WL (1981) Oral contraceptive use, sexual activity and cervical carcinoma. Am J Obstet Gynecol 139:52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Swan SH, Pettiti DB (1982) A review of problems of bias and confounding in epidemiologic studies of cervical neoplasia and oral contraceptive use. Am J Epidemiol 115:10

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Clarke EA, Hatcher J, McKeown-Eyssen GE, Lickrish GM (1985) Cervical dysplasia: association with sexual behavior, smoking and oral contraceptive use? Am J Obstet Gynecol 151:612

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ory HW, Conger SB, Naib Z, Tyler CW, Hatcher RA (1977) Preliminary analysis of oral contraceptive use and risk of developing premalignant lesions of the uterine cervix. In: Garratini S, Berendes HW (eds) Pharmacology of steroid contraceptive drugs. Raven, New York, pp 211–224

    Google Scholar 

  53. Harris RWC, Brinton LA, Cowdell RH, Skegg DCG, Smith PG, et al. (1980) Characteristics of women with dysplasia or carcinoma-in-situ of the cervix uteri. Br J Cancer 42:359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Stern E, Forsythe AB, Youkeles L, Coffelt CF (1977) Steroid contraceptive use and cervical dysplasia: increased risk of progression. Science 196:1460

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Editorial (1975) Cervical epithelial dysplasia. Br Med J 1:294

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Editorial (1977) Cervical neoplasia and the pill. Lancet 2:644

    Google Scholar 

  57. Vessey MP, Lawless M, McPherson K, Yeates D (1983) Neoplasia of the cervix uteri and contraception — a possible adverse effect of the pill. Lancet 2:930

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Vessey MP, Lawless M, McPherson K, Yeates D (1983) Oral contraceptives and cervical cancer. Lancet 2:1358

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. WHO Collaborative Study of Neoplasia and Steroid Contraceptives (1985) Invasive cervical cancer and combined oral contraceptives. Br Med J 290:961

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Brinton LA, Huggins GR, Lehman HF, Mallin K, et al. (1986) Long-term use of oral contraceptives and risk of invasive cervical cancer. Int J Cancer 38:339

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Peters RK, Thomas DC, Hagan DG, Mack TM, Henderson BE (1986) Risk factors for invasive cervical cancer among Latinas and non-Latinas in Los Angeles County. JNCI 77:1063

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Peters RK, Chao A, Mack TM, Thomas D, Bernstein L, et al. (1986) Increased frequency of adenocarcinomas of the uterine cervix in young women in Los Angeles County. JNCI 76:423

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Minteot R, Fievez CL (1974) Endocervical changes with the use of synthetic steroids. Obstet Gynecol 44:53

    Google Scholar 

  64. Gall SA, Bourgeois CH, Maguire R (1969) The morphologic effects of oral contraceptive agents on the cervix. JAMA 202:2243

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Edmondson HA, Henderson B, Benton B (1976) Liver cell adenomas associated with use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 294:470

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Rooks JB, Ory HW, Ishak KG, Strauss LT, Greenspan JR, et al. (1979) Epidemiology of hepatocellular adenoma. The role of oral contraceptive use. JAMA 242:644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Yager JD, Hager R (1980) Oral contraceptive steroids as promoters of hepatocarcinogenesis in female Sprague-Dawley rats. Cancer Res 30:3680

    Google Scholar 

  68. Henderson BE, Preston-Martin S, Edmondson HA, Peters RL, Pike MC (1983) Hepatocellular carcinoma and oral contraceptives. Br J Cancer 48:437

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Neuberger J, Forman D, Doll R, Williams R (1986) Oral contraceptives and hepatocellular carcinoma. Br Med J 292:1355

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Forman D, Vincent TJ, Doll R (1986) Cancer of the liver and the use of oral contraceptives. Br Med J 292:1357

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kappus H, Bolt HM, Remmer H (1972) Demethylation of mestranol to ethinyloestradiol in vitro and in vivo. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 71:374

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Bolt HM, Bolt WH (1974) Pharmacokinetics of mestranol in man in relation to its estrogenic activity. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 7:295

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Korenman SG (1969) Comparative binding affinity of estrogens and its relation to estrogenic potency. Steroids 13:163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Kappus H, Bolt HM, Remmer H (1973) Affinity of ethynylestradiol and mestranol for the uterine estrogen receptor and for the microsomal mixed function oxidase of the liver. J Steroid Biochem 4:121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. De la Pena A, Chenault CB, Goldzieher JW (1975) Radioimmunoassay of unconjugated plasma ethynylestradiol in women given a single oral dose of ethynylestradiol or mestranol. Steroids 25:773

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Newburger J, Goldzieher JW (1985) Pharmacokinetics of ethinylestradiol: a current view. Contraception 32:33

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Goldzieher JW, Dozier TS, de la Pena A, Ojo OA, Lean TS, Chinnatamby S, Basnayake S, Koetsawang S (1980) Plasma levels and pharmacokinetics of ethynylestrogens in various populations. II. Mestranol. Contraception 21:17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Warren RJ, Fotherby K (1973) Plasma levels of ethynylestradiol after administration of ethynylestradiol or mestranol to human subjects. J Endocrinol 59:369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Brenner PF, Goebelsmann U, Stanczyk FZ, Mishell DR Jr (1980) Serum levels of ethinyloestradiol following its ingestion alone or in contraceptive formulations. Contraception 22:85

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Bird CE, Clark AF (1973) Metabolic clearance rates and metabolism of mestranol and ethynylestradiol in normal young women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 36:296

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Helton ED, Goldzieher JW (1977) Metabolism of ethynyl estrogens. J Toxicol Environ Health 3:231

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Breuer H (1977) Metabolic pathways of steroid contraceptive drugs. In: Garattini S, Berendes HW (eds) Pharmacology of steroid contraceptive drugs. Raven, New York

    Google Scholar 

  83. Orme ML’E, Back DJ, Breckenridge AM (1983) Clinical pharmacokinetics of oral contraceptive steroids. Clin Pharmacokinet 8:95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Goldzieher JW, Kraemer DC (1972) The metabolism and effects of contraceptive steroids in primates. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 71:389

    Google Scholar 

  85. Williams MC, Helton ED, Goldzieher JW (1975) The urinary metabolites of 17α-ethynylestradiol-9α, 11 epsilon-3H in women. Chromatographic profiling and identification of ethynyl and non-ethynyl compounds. Steroids 25:229

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Longcope C, Williams KIH (1977) Estradiol and mestranol: Their pharmacodynamics and effects on natural estrogens. In: Garattini S, Berendes HW (eds) Pharmacology of steroid contraceptive drugs. Raven, New York

    Google Scholar 

  87. Longcope C, Williams KIH (1975) The metabolism of synthetic oestrogens in non-users and users of oral contraceptives. Steroids 25:121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Goldzieher JW et al. (1975) Comparative studies of ethynyl estrogens used iti oral contraceptives. I. Endometrial response. II. Antiovulatory potency. III. Effect on plasma gonadotropins. Am J Obstet Gynecol 122:615

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Williams JG, Longcope C, Williams KIH (1975) Metabolism of 4-3H- and 4-14C-17α-ethinylestradiol 3-methyl ether (mestranol) by women. Steroids 25:343

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Goebelsmann U (1986) Pharmacokinetics of contraceptive steroids in humans. In: Gregoire AT, Blye RT (eds) Contraceptive steroids: pharmacology and safety. Plenum, New York, p 67

    Google Scholar 

  91. Humpel M, Wendt H, Pommerenke G, Weiss C, Speck W (1978) Investigations of pharmacokinetics of levonorgestrel to specific consideration of a possible first pass effect in women. Contraception 17:207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Back DJ, Bates M, Breckenridge AM, Hall JM, Maclver M, Orme ML’E, Park BK, Rowe PH (1981) The pharmacokinetics of levonorgestrel and ethinylestradiol in women — studies with Ovran and Ovranette. Contraception 23:229–239

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O, Vikko R, Wijnand HP, Booij M, van der Veen F (1979) Metabolism of a new synthetic progestogen, ORG 2969, in female volunteers. Pharmacokinetics after an oral dose. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 15:349

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Viinikka L (1979) Metabolism of a new synthetic progestogen, OR 2969 by human lives in vitro. J Steroid Biochem 10:353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Hasenack HG, Bosch AMG, Kaar K (1986) Serum levels of 3-ketodesogestrel after oral administration of desogestrel and 3-ketodesogestrel. Contraception 33:991

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Back DJ, Bates M, Breckenridge AM, Ellis A, Maclver M, Orme ML’E, Rowe PH (1981) The in vitro metabolism of ethinylestradiol, mestranol and levonorgestrel by human jejunal mucosa. Br J Clin Pharmacol 11:275

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Weintraub HS, Adams LS, Patrick JW, McGuire JL (1978) Disposition of norgestimate in the presence and absence of ethinyloestradiol after oral administration to humans. J Pharm Sci 67:1406

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Alton KB, Hetyel NS, Shaw C, Patrick JE (1984) Biotransformation of norgestimate in women. Contraception 29:19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Faber LE, Wakim NG, Duhring JL (1987) Evolving concepts in the mechanism of steroid action: current developments. Am J Obstet Gynecol 156:1449

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Bullock LP, Barden CW, Sherman MR (1978) Androgenic, antiandrogenic, synandrogenic sections of progestins. Role of steric and allosteric interactions with androgen receptors. Endocrinology 103:1768

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Bardin CW, Janne OA (1986) Steroids of one class can mimic, inhibit and potentiate the biological effects of other steroid classes when administered at high doses. In: Gregoire AT, Blye RT (eds) Contraceptive steroids: pharmacology and safety. Plenum, New York, p 123

    Google Scholar 

  102. Edgren RA (1986) Endocrine effects of systemic steroidal contraceptives. In: Gregoire AT, Blye RT (eds) Contraceptive steroids: pharmacology and safety. Plenum, New York, p 163

    Google Scholar 

  103. Swyer GIM, Little V (1968) Clinical assessment of relative potency of progestogens. J Reprod Fertil [Suppl] 5:63

    Google Scholar 

  104. Vessey MP, Lawless M, Yeates D (1982) Efficacy of different contraceptive methods. Lancet 1:841

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Caillouette JC, Koehler AL (1987) Phasic contraceptive pills and functional ovarian cysts. Am J Obstet Gynecol 156:1538

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Pasquale SA (1984) Rationale for a triphasic oral contraceptive. J Reprod Med [Suppl] 29:560

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Bottiger LE, Boman G, Westerholm B (1980) Oral contraceptives and thromboembolic disease: effects of lowering estrogen content. Lancet 1(8178): 1097

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Meade TW, Greenberg G, Thompson SG (1980) Progestogens and cardiovascular reactions associated with oral contraceptives and a comparison of the safety of the 50 and 30 meg estrogen preparations. Br Med J 280:1157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Petitti DB, Wingerd J, Pellegrin F, Ramcharan S (1979) Risk of vascular disease in women. JAMA 242:1150

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Vessey MP (1980) Female hormones of vascular disease — An epidemiological overview. Br J Fam Plann [Suppl] 6:1

    Google Scholar 

  111. Porter JB, Hunter JR, Danielson DA (1982) Oral contraceptives and nonfatal vascular disease — recent experience. Obstet Gynecol 59:299

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Porter JB, Hunter JR, Jick H, Stergachis A (1985) Oral contraceptives and nonfatal vascular disease. Obstet Gynecol 66(1):1

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Layde PM, Ory HW, Beral V, Kay CR (1983) Incidence of arterial disease among oral contraceptive users. J R Coll Gen Pract 33:75r

    Google Scholar 

  114. Royal College of General Practitioners (1977) Mortality among oral contraceptive users. J R Coll Gen Pract 2:727

    Google Scholar 

  115. Meade TW (1982) Effects of progestogens on the cardiovascular system. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:776

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Vessey MP, Lawless M, Yeates D (1984) Oral contraceptives and stroke: findings in a large prospective study. Br Med J 289:530

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Bradley DD, Wingerd J, Petitti DB, Krauss RM, Rancharan (1978) Serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol in women using oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 299(1):17

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Knopp R, Walden C, et al. (1981) Oral contraceptive and postmenopausal estrogen effect on lipoprotein, triglyceride and cholesterol in an adult female population: relationships to estrogen and progestin potency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53:1123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Wahl P, Walden C, Knopp R, Hoover J, Wallace R, Heiss G, Rifkind B (1983) Effect of estrogen/progestin potency on lipid/lipoprotein cholesterol. N Engl J Med 308:862

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Roy S, Krauss RM, Duda MJ, Mesen N (1985) Effects of three low-dose oral contraceptives on serum lipids and lipoproteins: differential changes in high-density lipoprotein subclasses (Abstr 317) 32nd Annual Meeting of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation, Arizona, March 20–23, Phoenix, p 183

    Google Scholar 

  121. Gordon T, Castelli WP, Hjortland M, Kannel WB, Dawber T (1977) High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary artery disease: The Framington Study. Am J Med 62:707

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Fredrickson DS, Levy R (1972) In: Stanbury JB, Wyngaarden JB, Fredrickson DS (eds) The metabolic basis of inherited disease, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York

    Google Scholar 

  123. Stone NJ, Levy RI, Fredrickson DS, Verter J (1974) Coronary artery disease in 116 kindred with familial type II hyperlipoproteinemia. Circulation 49:476

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Lipson A, Stoy DB, LaRosa JC, Muesing RA, Cleary PA, Miller VT, Gilbert PR, Stadel B (1986) Progestins and oral contraceptive-induced lipoprotein changes: a prospective study. Contraception 34:121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Miller NE, Hammett F, Saltissi S, Rao S, van Zeller H, Coltart J, Lewis B (1981) Relation of angiographically defined coronary artery disease to plasma lipoprotein subfractions and apolipoprotein. Br Med J 282

    Google Scholar 

  126. Maciejko JJ, Holmes DR, Kottke BA, Ainsmeister AR, Dac, Dinh DM, Mao SJT (1983) Apolipoprotein A-I as a marker of angiographically assessed coronary-artery disease. N Engl J Med 309:385

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Gaspard UJ, Buret J, Gillain D, Romus MA, Lambotte R (1985) Serum lipid and lipoprotein changes induced by new oral contraceptives containing ethinylestradiol plus levonorgestrel or desogestrel. Contraception 31:395

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Kloosterboer HJ, van Wayjen RGA, van den Ende A (1986) Comparative effects of monophasic desogestrel plus ethinyloestradiol and triphasic levonorgestrel plus ethinyloestradiol on lipid metabolism. Contraception 34:135

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Slone D, Shapiro S, Kaufman DW, Rosenberg L, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD (1981) Risk of myocardial infarction in relation to current and discontinued use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 305:420

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Collaborative Group for the Study of Stroke in Young Women (1973) Oral contraception and increased risk of cerebral ischemia or thrombosis. N Engl J Med 288:871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Petitti DB, Wingerd J (1978) Use of oral contraceptives, cigarette smoking and risk of subarachnoid haemorrhage. Lancet 2:234

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Inman WHW (1979) Oral contraceptives and fatal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Br Med J 2:1468

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Thorogood M, Adam SA, Mann JI (1981) Fatal subarachnoid haemorrhage in young women: role of oral contraceptives. Br Med J 283:762

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Levy RI, Feinleib M (1984) Risk factors for coronary artery disease and their management. In: Braunwald E (ed) Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Saunders, Philadelphia, p 1205

    Google Scholar 

  135. Ory HW (1983) Mortality associated with fertility and fertility control: 1983. Fam Plann Perspect 15:57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Phillips RL, Lemon FR, Beeson L, Kuzman JW (1978) Coronary heart disease mortality among Seventh-Day Adventists with differing dietary habits: a preliminary report. Am J Clin Nutr. 31:S191

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. The Framingham Study (1970) An epidemiological investigation of cardiovascular disease, sect. 23: The Framingham Diet Study: Diet and the regulation of serum cholesterol. US Government Printing Office, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  138. Nichols AB, Ravenscroft C, Lamphiear DE, Ostrander LD Jr (1976) Daily nutritional intake and serum lipid levels. The Tecumseh Study. Am J Clin Nutr 29:1384

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Shekelle RB, Shryock AM, Paul O, Lepper M, Stamler J, Liu S, Raynor WJ (1981) Diet, serum cholesterol, and death from coronary heart disease. The Western Electric Study. N Engl J Med 304:65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, de Lezenne, Coulander C (1985) The inverse relation between fish consumption and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 312:1205

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Kushi LH, Lew RA, Stare FJ, Ellison CR, El Lozy M, Bourke G, Dalyl, et al. (1985) Diet and 20-year mortality from coronary heart disease: The Ireland-Boston Diet-Heart Study. N Engl J Med 312:811

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Kahn HA, Phillips RL, Snowdon DA, Choi W (1984) Association between reported diet and all-cause mortality: Twenty-one year follow-up on 27, 530 adult Seventh-Day Adventists. Am J Epidemiol 119:775

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Phillipson BE, Rothrock DW, Connor WE, Harris WS, Illingworth DR (1985) Reduction of plasma lipids, lipoproteins, and apoproteins by dietary fish oils in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. N Engl J Med 312:1210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Morris JN, Everitt MG, Pollard R, Chave SPW, Semmence AM (1980) Vigorous exercise in leisure-time: protection against coronary heart disease. Lancet 2:1207

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Gibbons LW, Blair SN, Cooper KH, Smith M (1983) Association between coronary heart disease risk factors and physical fitness in healthy adult women. Circulation 67:977

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Hartung GH, Foreyt JP, Mitchell RE, Vlasek I, Gotto AM Jr (1980) Relation of diet to high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol in middle-aged marathon runners, joggers and inactive men. N Engl J Med 302:357

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Merians DR, Haskell WL, Vranizan KM, Phelps J, Woods PD, Superko R (1984) Relationship of exercise, oral contraceptive use and body fat to concentrations of plasma lipids and lipoprotein cholesterol in young women. Am J Med 78:913

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Castelli WP, Gordon T, Hjortland MC, Kagan A, Doyle JT, Hames CG, Hulley SB, Zukel WB (1977) Alcohol and blood lipids. The Cooperative Lipoprotein Phenotyping Study. Lancet 2:154

    Google Scholar 

  149. Gordon T, Ernst N, Fisher M, Rifkind BM (1981) Alcohol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Circulation 64:111

    Google Scholar 

  150. Haskall WL, Camargo C Jr, Williams PT, Vranizan JM, Krauss RM, Lindgren FT, Wood PD (1984) The effect of cessation and resumption of moderate alcohol intake on serum high density lipoprotein subfraction: a controlled study. N Engl J Med 310:805

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. Jain AK (1976) Cigarette smoking, use of oral contraceptives and myocardial infarction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 126:301

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Spellacy WN, Buhi WC, Birk SA (1972) The effect of estrogens on carbohydrate metabolism: glucose, insulin, and growth hormone studies on one hundred and seventy-one women ingesting premarin, mestranol and ethinyl estradiol for six months. Am J Obstet Gynecol 114:378

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Spellacy WN (1982) Carbohydrate metabolism during treatment with estrogen, progestogen and low-dose oral contraceptives. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:732

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Wynn V (1982) Effect of duration of low-dose oral contraceptive administration on carbohydrate metabolism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:739

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Perlman JA, Russell-Briefel R, Ezzati T, Liberknecht G (1985) Oral glucose tolerance and the potency of contraceptive progestins. J Chronic Dis 38:857

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Van der Vange N, Kloosterboer HJ, Haspels AA (1987) Effect of seven low-dose combined oral contraceptive preparations on carbohydrate metabolism. Am J Obstet Gynecol 156:918

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Bergman RN, Phillips LS, Cobelli C (1981) Physiologic evaluation of factors controlling glucose tolerance in man: measurement of insulin sensitivity and /?-cell glucose sensitivity from the response to intravenous glucose. J Clin Invest 68:1456

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Bergman RN, Finegood DT, Ader M (1985) Assessment of insulin sensitivity in vivo. Endocr Rev 6:45

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Bergman RN, Roy S, Lobo RA (1984) Carbohydrate metabolism of normal women on levonorgestrel and norethindrone containing oral contraceptives (OC) (Abstr 213). 31st Annual Meeting of the Society for Gynecologic Investigation, March 21–24, San Francisco, p 127

    Google Scholar 

  160. Roy S (Personal Communication) NIH contract: measures of carbohydrate tolerance and lipid metabolism in users of norgestrel containing oral contraceptives

    Google Scholar 

  161. Rosenburg L, Miller DR, Kaufman DW, Helmrich SP, van de Carr S, Stolley PA, Shapiro S (1983) Myocardial infarction in women under 50 years of age. JAMA 250:2801

    Article  Google Scholar 

  162. Stout RW (1985) Overview of the association between insulin and atherosclerosis. Metabolism 34:7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Wissler RW (1984) Principles of the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. In: Braunwald E (ed) Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Saunders, Philadelphia, p 1183

    Google Scholar 

  164. Meade TW (1982) Oral contraceptives, clotting factors, and thrombosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:758

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Notelovitz M, Levenson I, McKenzie L, Lane D, Kitchens CS (1985) The effects of low-dose oral contraceptives on coagulation and fibrinolysis in two high-risk populations: young female smokers and older premenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 152(8):995–1000

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Mammen EF (1982) Oral contraceptives and blood coagulation: A critical review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:781

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Jugdutt BI, Stevens GF, Zacks DJ, Lee SJK, Taylor RF (1983) Myocardial infarction, oral contraception, cigarette smoking and coronary artery spasm in young women. Am Heart J 4:757

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Chilvers E, Rudge P (1986) Cerebral venous thrombosis and subarachnoid haemorrhage in users of oral contraceptives. Br Med J 292:524

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Moncada S (1982) Prostacyclin and arterial wall biology. Arteriosclerosis 2:193

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Pitt B, Shea MJ, Romson JL, Lucchesi BR (1983) Prostaglandins and prostaglandin inhibitors in ischemic heart disease. Ann Intern Med 99:83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. FitzGerald GA, Pederson AK, Patrono C (1983) Analysis of prostacyclin and thromboxane biosynthesis in cardiovascular disease. Circulation 67:1174

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Nadler J, Zipser RD, Coleman R, Horton R (1983) Stimulation of renal prostaglandins by pressor hormones in man: Comparison of prostaglandin E2 and prostacyclin (6-keto prostaglandin F1α). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56:1260

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Schorer AE, Gerrard JM, White JG, Krivit W (1978) Oral contraceptive use alters the balance of platelet prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Prostaglandins Med 1:5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Sinzinger H, Klein K, Kaliman A, Silberbauer K, Feigl W (1980) Enhanced prostaglandin formation in veins of women under chronic treatment with oral contraceptive drugs. Pharmacol Res Commun 12:515

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Ylikorkala O, Puolakka A, Viinikka L (1981) Oestrogen-containing oral contraceptives decrease prostacyclin production. Lancet 1:48

    Google Scholar 

  176. Ylikorkala O, Puolakka A, Viinikka L (1982) The effect of oral contraceptives on antiaggregatory prostacyclin and proaggregatory thromboxane A2 in humans. Am J Obstet Gynecol 142:573

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Milekowsky GN, Roy S, Nadler J (1986) Effect of oral contraceptives and smoking on prostacyclin excretion and platelet function (Abstr 88). Society for Gynecologic Investigation, March 21, Toronto, p 70

    Google Scholar 

  178. Rubin GL, Ory HW, Layde PM (1982) Oral contraceptives and pelvic inflammatory disease. Am J Obstet Gynecol 144:630

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Ryden G, Fahraeus L, Molin L, Ahman K (1979) Do contraceptives influence the incidence of acute pelvic inflammatory disease in women with gonorrhoea? Contraception 20:149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Washington AE, Gove S, Schachter J, Sweet RL (1985) Oral contraceptives, Chlamydia trachomatis infection and pelvic inflammatory disease: a word of caution about protection. JAMA 253:2246

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Harrison HR, Phil D, Costin M, Meder JB, Bownds LM, Sim DA, Lewis M, Alexander ER (1985) Cervical Chlamydia trachomatis infection in university women: relationship to history, contraception, ectopy and cervicitis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 153:244

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Ripa KT, Svensson L, Treharne JD, Westrom L, Mardh PA (1980) Chlamydia trachomatis infection in patients with laparoscopically verified acute salpingitis: results of isolation and antibody determinations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 138:960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Centers for Disease Control (1985) Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 1985. MMWR [Suppl] 34:80

    Google Scholar 

  184. Henry-Suchet J, Catalan F, Loffredo V, Serfaty D, Siboulet A, Perel V, Sanson NJ, et al. (1980) Microbiology of specimens obtained by laparoscopy from controls and from patients with pelvic inflammatory disease or infertility with tubal obstruction: chlamydia trachomatis and Ureaplasma urealyticum. Am J Obstet Gynecol 138:1022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Henry-Suchet J, Catalan F, Loffredo V, Serfaty D, Samson NJ, DeBache C, Pigeau F, Coppin R (1981) Chlamydia trachomatis associated with chronic inflammation in abdominal specimens fro women selected for tuboplasty. Fertil Steril 36:599

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Sweet RL, Schachter J, Robbie MO (1983) Failure of β-lactam antibiotics to eradicate Chlamydia trachomatis in the endometrium despite apparent clinical cure of acute salpingitis. JAMA 250:2641

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Tuffrey M, Taylor-Robinson D (1981) Progesterone as a key factor in the development of a mouse model for genital tract infection with chlamydia trachomatis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 12:111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Rank RG, White HJ, Hough AJ Jr, Pasley JN, Baron AL (1982) Effect of estradiol on chlamydial genital infection of female guinea pigs. Infect Immun 38:699

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Jordan JA, Singer A (1976) Effect of oral contraceptive steroids upon epithelium and mucus. In: Jordan JA, Singer A (eds) The cervix. Saunders, London, p 192

    Google Scholar 

  190. Wolner-Hanssen P, Svensson L, Mardh P-A, Westrom L (1985) Laparoscopic findings and contraceptive use in women with signs and symptoms suggestive of acute salpingitis. Obstet Gynecol 66:233

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Wolner-Hanssen P (1986) Oral contraceptive use modifies the manifestations of pelvic inflammatory disease. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 93:619

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Cramer DW, Goldman MB, Schiff I, Belisle S, Albrecht B, Stadel B, Gibson M, et al. (1987) The relationship of tubal infertility to barrier method and oral contraceptive use. JAMA 257:2446

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Mitchell H, Drake M, Medley G (1986) Prospective evaluation of risk of cervical cancer after cytological evidence of human papillomavirus infection. Lancet 2:573

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. Maheux R, Jenicek M, Cleroux R, Beauregard H, de Muylder X, Gratton NM, van Campenhout J (1982) Oral contraceptives and prolactinomas: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 143:134

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Shy KK, McTiernan AM, Daling JR, Weiss NS (1983) Oral contraceptive use and the occurrence of pituitary prolactinoma. JAMA 249:2204

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Strom BL, Tamragouri RN, Morse ML, Lazar EL, West SL, Stolley PD, Jones JK (1986) Oral contraceptives and other risk factors for gallbladder disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther 39:335

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Royal College of General Practitioners (1967) Oral contraception and thromboembolic disease. JR Coll Gen Pract 13:267

    Google Scholar 

  198. Royal College of General Practitioners (1981) Further analyses of mortality in oral contraceptive users. Lancet 1:541

    Google Scholar 

  199. Sweet RL (1986) Pelvic inflammatory disease. Sex Transm Dis 13:192

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Clarke EA, Hatcher J, McKeown-Eyssen GE, Lickrish GM (1985) Cervical dysplasia: association with sexual behavior, smoking and oral contraceptive use? Am J Obstet Gynecol 151:612

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Daling JR, Weiss NS, Metch BJ, Chow WH, Soderstrom RM, Moore DE, Spadoni LR, Stadel BY (1985) Primary tubal infertility in relation to the use of an intrauterine device. N Engl J Med 312:937

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Sherman KJ, Daling JR, Weiss NS (1987) Sexually transmitted diseases and tubal infertility. Sex Transm Dis 14:12–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Howe G, Westhoff C, Vessey M, Yeates D (1985) Effects of age, cigarette smoking, and other factors on fertility: findings in a large prospective study. Br Med J 290:1697

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. US Government (1985) Current Population Report Series P-254, no 949. Statistical Abstract for the year 1983. US Government Printing Office, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  205. Vital and Health Statistics (1983) OC use in 1982. Series 23, no 10. US Government Printing Office, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  206. Vessey MP (1984) Comment on an article, “Absence of correlation between oral contraceptive usage and cardiovascular mortality.” Int J Fertil 29:208

    Google Scholar 

  207. Russell M, Ramcharan S (1987) Oral contraceptive estrogen content and adverse effects: has a dose-response relationship been established? Can Fam Physician 33:445

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Wiseman RA (1984) Absence of correlation between oral contraceptive usage and cardiovascular mortality. Int J Fertil 29:198

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Chow LP (1984) Comment on an article, “Absence of correlation between oral contraceptive usage and cardiovascular mortality.” Int J Fertil 29:210

    Google Scholar 

  210. Kay CR (1984) Response to the Paper by Richard Wiseman. Int J Fertil 29:211

    Google Scholar 

  211. Ory HW (1982) The noncontraceptive health benefits from oral contraceptives. Earn Plann Perspect 14:182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA

    S. Roy & F. Z. Stanczyk

  2. Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA

    L. Bernstein

Authors
  1. S. Roy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. L. Bernstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. F. Z. Stanczyk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Gynecological Endocrinology, Women’s Hospital, University of Heidelberg, Voßstr. 9, D-6900, Heidelberg, Germany

    Benno Runnebaum , Thomas Rabe  & Ludwig Kiesel ,  & 

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1988 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this paper

Cite this paper

Roy, S., Bernstein, L., Stanczyk, F.Z. (1988). Analysis of Oral Contraceptive Risks. In: Runnebaum, B., Rabe, T., Kiesel, L. (eds) Female Contraception. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73790-9_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-73790-9_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-73792-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-73790-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation