Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Evolution of Toxins Found in Snake Venoms

  • Chapter
Snake Venoms

Part of the book series: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology ((HEP,volume 52))

Abstract

The past decade has seen both the beginnings of knowledge on the chemical structure of snake venom toxins and the subsequent explosion in the amount of available data on this subject. The chemistry of these proteins has been dealt with by Karlsson in Chapter 5. One of the possible types of information that can be gleaned from such a mass of data on protein structures is the evolutionary history of the genes coding for those proteins, as well as information on the biologic classification of the organisms possessing these genes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Arnberg, H., Eaker, D., Fryklund, L., Karlsson, E.: Amino acid sequence of oxiana α, the main neurotoxin of the venom of Naja naja oxiana. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 359, 222–232 (1974)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arnberg, H., Eaker, D., Karlsson, E.: To be published, quoted by Karlsson (1973)

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks, B.E.C., Miledi, R., Shipolini, R. A.: The primary sequences and neuromuscular effects of three neurotoxic polypeptides from the venom of Dendroaspis viridis. Europ. J. Biochem. 45, 457–468 (1974)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barker, W.C., Dayhoff, M.O.: Detecting distant relationship: Computer methods and results. In: Dayhoff, M. O. (Ed.): Atlas of protein sequence and structure, Vol. 5, pp. 101–110. Washington, D.C.: National Biomedical Research Foundation 1972

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnabas, J., Goodman, M., Moore, G. W.: Descent of mammalian alpha globin chain sequences investigated by the maximum parsimony method. J. molec. Biol. 69, 249–278 (1972)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, E.A., Cohen, M.S., Gold, M.H., Kim, J.K.: Evolution of ribonuclease in relation to polypeptide folding mechanisms. Nature (Lond.) New Biol. 240, 395–398 (1972)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of toxins α and β from N. nivea venom and the disulfide bonds of toxin a. J. biol. Chem. 246, 7383–7391 (1971)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of toxins b and d from Naja melanoleuca venom. J. biol. Chem. 247, 2866–2871 (1972)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. The reactivity of the disulphide bonds of Naja nivea toxina. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 359, 242–247 (1974)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D.P., Strydom, D.J.: A neurotoxin, toxina, from Egyptian cobra (Naja haje haje) venom I. Purification, properties and complete amino acid sequence. J. biol. Chem. 244, 4147–4157 (1969)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D. P., Viljoen, C.C.: Purification of phospholipase A from Bitis gabonica venom. Toxicon 12, 611–619 (1974a)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Botes, D. P., Viljoen, C.C.: Bitis gabonica venom. The amino acid sequence of phospholipase A. J. biol. Chem. 249, 3827–3835 (1974 b)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braganca, B.M., Patel, N.T., Badrinath, P. G.: Isolation and properties of a cobra venom factor selectively cytotoxic to Yoshida sarcoma cells. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 136, 508–520 (1967)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breithaupt, H., Omori-Satoh, T., Lang, J.: Isolation and characterization of three phospholipases A from the crotoxin complex. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 403, 355–369 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bunn, H.F., Schmidt, G. J., Haney, D.N., Dluhy, R.G.: Haemoglobin Cranston, an unstable variant having an elongated β chain due to non-homologous crossover between two normal β chains. Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. (Wash.) 72, 3609–3613 (1975)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, F. H. H.: Snake venom toxins. The primary structures of two novel cytotoxin homologues from the venom of forest cobra Naja melanoleuca). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 59, 269–276 (1974)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, F.H.H.: Snake venom toxins. The primary structure of protein S4Cll5 a neurotoxin homologue from the venom of forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca). Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 400, 310–321 (1975)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson, F.H.H., Joubert, F.J.: Snake venom toxins. The isolation and purification of three cytotoxin homologues from the venom of the forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca) and the complete amino acid sequence of toxin V111. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 336, 453–469 (1974)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clegg, J.B., Weatherall, D.J., Milner, P.F.: Haemoglobin Constant Spring—chain termination mutant? Nature (Lond.) New Biol. 234, 337–340 (1971)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Condrea, E.: Membrane-active polypeptides from snake venom: cardiotoxins and haemocytotoxins. Experientia (Basel) 30, 121–129 (1974).

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dayhoff, M.O.: Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, Vol. V. Washington, D.C.: National Biomedical Research Foundation 1972

    Google Scholar 

  • Dayhoff, M.O., Park, C.M.: Cytochrome C.: building a phylogenetic tree. In: Dayhoff, M.O. (Ed.): Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, Vol. IV, pp. 7–16. Silver Spring: National Biomedical Research Foundation 1969

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaker, D.: Structural nature of pre-synaptic neurotoxins from Australian elapid venoms. Toxicon 13, 90–91 (1975)

    Google Scholar 

  • Eaker, D.L., Porath, J.: The amino acid sequence of a neurotoxin from Naja nigricollis venom. Jap. J. Microbiol. 11, 353–355 (1967)

    Google Scholar 

  • Farris, J.S.: Estimating phylogenetic trees from distance matrices. Amer. Naturalist 106, 645–668 (1972)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitch, W.M., Margoliash, E.: Construction of phylogenetic trees. Science 155, 279–284 (1967)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fryklund, L., Eaker, D.: Complete amino acid sequence of a non-neurotoxic hemolytic protein from the venom of Hemachatus haemachatus (African Ringhals cobra). Biochemistry 12, 661–667 (1973)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fryklund, L., Eaker, D.: The complete covalent structure of a cardiotoxin from the venom of Naja nigricollis (African black-necked spitting cobra). Biochemistry 14, 2865–2871 (1975 a)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fryklund, L., Eaker, D.: The complete amino acid sequence of a cardiotoxin from the venom of Naja naja (Cambodian cobra). Biochemistry 14, 2860–2865 (1975 b)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fryklund, L., Eaker, D., Karlsson, E.: Amino acid sequences of the two principal neurotoxins of Enhydrina schistosa venom. Biochemistry 11, 4633–4640 (1972)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grishin, E.V., Sukhikh, A.P., Adamovich, T.B., Ovchinnikov, Y.A., Yukelson, L.Y.: The isolation and sequence determination of a cytotoxin from the venom of the middle-asian cobra Naja naja oxiana. FEBS Letters 48, 179–183 (1974a)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grishin, E.V., Sukhikh, A.P., Lukyanchuk, N.N., Slobodyan, L.N., Lipkin, V.M., Ovchinnikov, Y.A., Sorokin, V.M.: Amino acid sequence of neurotoxin II from Naja naja oxiana venom. FEBS Letters 36, 77–78 (1973)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grishin, E.V., Sukhikh, A.P., Slobodyan, L.N., Ovchinnikov, Y.A., Sorokin, V.M.: Amino acid sequence of neurotoxin I from Naja naja oxiana venom. FEBS Letters 45, 118–121 (1974 b)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halpert, J., Eaker, D.: Amino acid sequence of a pre-synaptic neurotoxin from the venom of Notechis scutatus scutatus (Australian tiger snake). J. biol. Chem. 250, 6990–6997 (1975)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi, K.: Personal communication with Maeda and Tamiya (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayashi, K., Takechi, M., Sasaki, T.: Amino acid sequence of cytotoxin I from the venom of the Indian cobra (Naja naja). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 45, 1357–1362 (1971)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F.J.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of two toxins from Ophiophagus hannah (King cobra) venom. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 317, 85–98 (1973)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F.J.: Naja melanoleuca (forest cobra) venom. The amino acid sequence of phospholipase A, fraction DE-III. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 379, 329–344 (1975 a)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F. J.: Naja melanoleuca (forest cobra) venom. The amino acid sequence of phospholipase A, fractions DE-I and DE-II. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 379, 345–359 (1975 b)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F.J.: Hemachatus haemachatus (Ringhals) venom. Purification, some properties and amino acid sequence of phospholipase A (Fraction DE-I). Europ. J. Biochem. 52, 539–554 (1975 c)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F. J.: Snake venom toxins. The purification and amino acid sequence of toxin CM-13b from Naja haje annulifera (Egyptian cobra) venom. Hoppe Seylers Z. physiol. Chem. 356, 1901–1908 (1975 d)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, F.J.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of three toxins (CM-10, CM-12, and CM-14) from Naja haje annulifera (Egyptian cobra) venom. Hoppe Seylers Z. physiol. Chem. 356, 53–72 (1975 e)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson, E.: Chemistry of some potent animal toxins. Experientia (Basel) 29, 1319–1327 (1973)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laure, C.J.: Die Primärstruktur des Crotamins. Hoppe Seylers Z. physiol. Chem. 356, 213–215 (1975)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, C.Y.: Chemistry and pharmacology of polypeptide toxins in snake venoms. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. 12, 265–286 (1972)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Louw, A.I.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of three cytotoxin homologues from Naja mossambica mossambica venom. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 336, 481–495 (1974a)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Louw, A.I.: Snake venom toxins. The complete amino acid sequence of cytotoxin V114 from the venom of Naja mossambica mossambica. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 58, 1022–1029 (1974 b)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maeda, N., Tamiya, N.: The primary structure of the toxin Laticauda semifasciata III, a weak and reversibly acting neurotoxin from the venom of a sea-snake, Laticauda semifasciata. Biochem. J. 141, 389–400 (1974)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maeda, N., Tamiya, N.: Isolation, properties and amino acid sequences of three neurotoxins from the venom of a sea-snake, Aipysurus laevis. Biochem. J. 153, 79–87 (1976)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mebs, D., Narita, K., Iwanaga, S., Samejima, Y., Lee, C.Y.: Purification, properties, and amino acid sequence of α-bungarotoxin from the venom of Bungarus multicinctus. Hoppe Seylers Z. physiol. Chem. 353, 243–262 (1972)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nakai, K., Sasaki, T., Hayashi, K.: Amino acid sequence of toxin A from the venom of the Indian cobra (Naja naja). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 44, 893–897 (1971)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Narita, K., Lee, C.Y.: The amino acid sequence of cardiotoxin from Formosan cobra (Naja naja atra) venom. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 41, 339–343 (1970)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Narita, K., Mebs, D., Iwanaga, S., Samejina, Y., Lee, C.Y.: Primary structure of α-Bungarotoxin from Bungarus multicinctus venom. J. Formosan med. Ass. 71, 336–343 (1972)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peacock, D., Boulter, D.: Use of amino acid sequence data in phylogeny and evaluation of methods using computer simulation. J. molec. Biol. 95, 513–527 (1975)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryden, L., Gabel, D., Eaker, D.: A model of the three-dimensional structure of snake venom neurotoxins based on chemical evidence. Int. J. Pept. Protein Res. 5, 261–273 (1973)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salach, J.I., Turini, P., Seng, R., Hauber, J., Singer, T.P.: Phospholipase A of snake venoms. I. Isolation and molecular properties of isoenzymes from Naja naja and Vípera russellii venoms. J. biol. Chem. 246, 331–339 (1971)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samejima, Y., Iwanaga, S., Suzuki, T.: Complete amino acid sequence of phospholipase A2-II isolated from Akistrodon halys blomhoffii venom. FEBS Letters 47, 348–351 (1974)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sato, S.: Personal communication with Maeda and Tamiya (1974)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sato, S., Tamiya, N.: The amino acid sequences of erabutoxins, neurotoxic proteins of sea-snake (Laticauda semifasciata) venom. Biochem. J. 122, 453–461 (1971)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shipolini, R.A., Bailey, G.S., Banks, B.E.C.: The separation of a neurotoxin from the venom of Naja melanoleuca and the primary sequence determination. Europ. J. Biochem. 42, 203–211 (1974)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shipolini, R.A., Banks, B.E.C.: The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide from the venom of Dendroaspis viridis. Europ. J. Biochem. 49, 399–405 (1974)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smyth, D.G., Stein, W.H., Moore, S.: The sequence of amino acid residues in bovine pancreatic ribonuclease: revisions and confirmations. J. biol. Chem. 238, 227–234 (1963)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strong, P. N., Goerke, J., Oberg, S.G., Kelly, R.B.: β-Bungarotoxin, a pre-synaptic toxin with enzymatic activity. Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. (Wash.) 73, 178–182 (1976)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, A. J. C.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequences of two toxins from Dendroaspis jamesonii kaimosae (Jameson’s mamba) venom. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 328, 491 – 509 (1973 d)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, A. J.C., Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. Purification, properties, and complete amino acid sequence of two toxins from Ringhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) venom. J. biol. Chem. 246, 1341–1349 (1971)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D. J.: Snake venom toxins. The amino acid sequence of two toxins from Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis (Black mamba) venom. J. biol. Chem. 247, 4029–4042 (1972 a)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D. J.: Phylogenetic relationships of proteroglyphae toxins. Toxicon 10, 39–45 (1972b)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D.J.: Studies on the toxins of Dendroaspis polylepis (Black mamba) venom. Ph.D. Thesis: University of South Africa, Pretoria, 1972 c

    Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D.J.: Snake venom toxins: The evolution of some of the toxins found in snake venoms. Systematic Zoology 22, 596–608 (1973 a)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D.J.: Snake venom toxins. Structure-function relationships and phylogenetics. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. [B] 44, 269–281 (1973 b)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D. J.: Protease inhibitors as snake venom toxins. Nature (Lond.) New Biol. 243, 88–89 (1973 c)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strydom, D. J.: Snake venom toxins. Purification and properties of low molecular weight polypeptides of Dendroaspis polylepis polylepis (Black mamba) venom. Europ. J. Biochem. 69, 169–176 (1976)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, H., Iwanaga, S., Suzuki, T.: Distribution of proteinase inhibitors in snake venoms. Toxicon 12, 193–197 (1974 a)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi, H., Iwanaga, S., Suzuki, T.: Snake venom proteinase inhibitors. I. Isolation and properties of two inhibitors of kallikrein, trypsin, plasmin, and α-chymotrypsin from the venom of Russel’s viper. (Vípera russelli). J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 76, 709–719 (1974b)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takechi, M., Hayashi, K., Sasaki, T.: The amino acid sequence of cytotoxin II from the venom of the Indian cobra (Naja naja). Mol. Pharmacol. 8, 446–451 (1972)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tamiya, N., Abe, H.: The isolation, properties, and amino acid sequence of erabutoxin C., a minor neurotoxic component of the venom of a sea-snake Laticauda semifasciata. Biochem. J. 130, 547–555 (1972)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsao, F.H.C., Keim, P.S., Heinrikson, R.L.: Crotalus adamanteus phospholipase A2-α: subunit structure, NH2-terminal sequence, and homology with other phospholipases. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 167, 706–717 (1975)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tu, A.T.: Neurotoxins of animal venoms: snakes. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 42, 235–258 (1973)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Viljoen, C.C., Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. The purification and amino acid sequence of toxin FVII from Dendroaspis angusticeps venom. J. biol. Chem. 248, 4915–4919 (1973)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Viljoen, C.C., Botes, D.P.: Snake venom toxins. The purification and amino acid sequence of toxin Ta2 from Dendroaspis angusticeps venom. J. biol. Chem. 249, 366–372 (1974)

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walt, S. J. Van der, Botes, D. P., Viljoen, C. C.: (unpublished 1977)

    Google Scholar 

  • Weise, K.H.K., Carlsson, F.H.H., Joubert, F.J., Strydom, D.J.: Snake venom toxins. The purification of toxins V111 and V112, two cytotoxin homologues from banded Egyptian cobra (Naja haje annulifera) venom, and the complete amino acid sequence of toxin V11 1. Hoppe Seylers Z. physiol. Chem. 354, 1317–1326 (1973)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, M.A.: Evidence that the phospholipases A2 of Crotalus adamanteus venom are dimers. Biochemistry 10, 4074–4083 (1971)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, C.C., Yang, H. J., Huang, J. S.: The amino acid sequence of cobrotoxin. Biochim. biophys. Acta (Amst.) 188, 65–77 (1969)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerkandl, E., Pauling, L.: Molecules as documents of evolutionary history. J. Theor. Biol. 8, 357–366 (1965)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. D. J. Strydom
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, No. 1. Jen Ai Road, 1st Section, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China

    Chen-Yuan Lee MD, Professor

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1979 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Strydom, D.J. (1979). The Evolution of Toxins Found in Snake Venoms. In: Lee, CY. (eds) Snake Venoms. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 52. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-66913-2_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-66913-2_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-66915-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-66913-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation