Abstract
Sea snakes are the most abundant and widely dispersed of the world’s venomous reptiles. Around the coastal seas of the Indian and western Pacific oceans, fishermen encounter sea snakes every day. Sea snake venoms are highly toxic. One “drop” (about 0.03 ml) contains enough venom to kill three adult men; some sea snake species can eject seven to eight such “drops” in a single bite. Fortunately for fishermen, sea snakes are not aggressive, and even when they do bite man, rarely inject much of their highly toxic venom. If this were not the case, deaths from sea snakebite would probably stop all sea fishing in many parts of Asia—and in these vast areas, fish are a most valuable source of high-quality protein.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Barme, M.: Venomous sea snakes of Viet Nam and their venoms. In: Keegan, H.L., Macfarlane, W.V. (Eds.): Venomous and Poisonous Animals and Noxious Plants of the Pacific Ocean, pp. 373–378. New York: Macmillan 1963
Barme, M.: Venomous sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). In: Biicherl, W., Buckley, E., Deulofeu, V. (Eds.): Venomous Animals and Their Venoms, Vol.1, pp. 285–308. New York: Academic Press 1968
Barme, M., Huard, M., Nguyen, X.M.: Preparation d’un serum anti-venin d’Hydrophiides. Premiers essais theapeutiques. Ann. Inst. Pasteur Lille 102, 497–500 (1962)
Baxter, E.H., Gallichio, H.A.: Cross neutralisation by tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) antivenene and sea snake (Enhydrina schistosa) antivenene against several sea snake venoms. Toxicon 12, 273–278(1974)
Baxter, E.H., Gallichio, H.A.: Protection against sea snake envenomation: comparative potency of four antivenenes. Toxicon 14, 347–355 (1976)
Bergman, A.M.: The breeding habits of sea snakes. Copeia 3, 156–160 (1943)
Blanford, W.T.: Eastern Persia: An Account of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary Commission, 1870–1872. Vol. II, Zoology and Geology, p.427. London: Macmillan and Comp. 1876
Bokma, H.: Doodelijke vergiftiging door den beet van een zeeslang, Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin). Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 81, 1926–1931 (1941)
Bokma, H.: Nog eens een beet van een zeeslang, door. Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 82, 87 (1942)
Buckland, F.: Land Water 27, 414 (1879)
Bywaters, E.G.L., Stead, J.K.: The production of renal failure following injection of solutions containing myohemoglobin. Quart. J. exp. Physiol. 33, 53–70 (1944)
Campbell, C. H.: The effects of snake venoms and their neurotoxins on the nervous system of man and animals. In: Hornabrook, R. W. (Ed.): Topics on Tropical Neurology. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis 1975
Cantor, T.: On pelagic serpents. Trans. Zool. Soc. 2, 303–311 (1841)
Cantor, T.: Miscellaneous Papers Relating to Indo-China, Vol. II, pp. 112–257. London, 1886
Carey, J.E., Wright, E. A.: The toxicity and immunological properties of some sea snake venoms with particular reference to that of Enhydrina schistosa Trans, roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 54, 50–67(1960)
Carey, J.E., Wright, E.A.: The site of action of the venom of the sea snake Enhydrina schistosa Trans, roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 55, 153–160 (1961)
Chevers, N.: A Manual of Jurisprudence for India Including the Outline of a History of Crime Against the Person in India, p. 372–373. India: Thacker Spink 1870
Cheymol, J., Barme, M., Bourillet, F., Roch-Arveiller, M.: Action neuromusculaire de trois venins d’Hydrophiides. Toxicon 5, 111–119 (1967)
Christensen, P.: The stability of refined antivenin. Toxicon 13, 75–77 (1975)
Clark, H.C.: Venomous snakes. Some Central American records: incidence of snake-bite accidents. Amer. J. trop. Med. 22, 37–39 (1942)
Day, F.: On the bite of the sea-snake. Ind. med. Gaz. 4, 92 (1869)
Dunson, W.A.: The Biology of Sea Snakes. Baltimore-London-Tokyo: Univ. Park Press 1975
Farmer, T.A., Hammack, W.J., Frommeyer, Jr., W.B.: Idiopathic recurrent rhabdomyolysis associated with myoglobinuria. Report of a case. New Engl. J. Med. 264, 60–66 (1961)
Fayrer, J.: The Thanatophidia of India, 2nd Ed., pp.45–46. London: J. and A. Churchill 1874
Fitzsimons, F.W.: The Snakes of South Africa, pp. 159–160. Cape Town: T. Maskew Miller 1912
Fohlman, J., Eaker, D.: Isolation and characterization of a lethal myotoxic phospholipase A from the venom of the common sea-snake Enhydrina schistosa causing myoglobonuria in mice. Toxicon 15, 385–393 (1977)
Forne, F.: Note Sur un Cas de Mort par Morsure de Serpent de Mer. Noumea, 1888
Fossen, A.: Vergiftiging door den beet van zeeslangen. Geneesk. Tijdschr. Ned. Ind. 80, 1164 – 1166(1940)
Fraser, T.R., Elliot, R. H.: Contributions to the study of the action of sea snake venoms. Part I: Venoms of Enhydrina valakadien and Enhydrina curtus Phil. Trans, roy. Soc. [B] 197, 249 –279 (1905)
Geh, S.L., Toh, H.T.: The effect of sea-snake neurotoxins and a phospholipase fraction on the ultrastructure of mammalian skeletal muscle. Abstract 33, SEA/WP Regional Meeting of Pharmacologists, Singapore, May, 1976
Harris, J. B., Johnson, M. A., Karlsson, E.: Pathological responses of rat skeletal muscle to a single subcutaneous injection of a toxin isolated from the venom of the Australian tiger snake, Notechis scutatus scutatus Clin. exp. Pharm. Phys. 2, 383–404 (1975)
Heatwole, H.: Attacks by Sea Snakes on Divers. In: Dunson, W.A. (Ed.): The Biology of Sea Snakes, pp. 503–516. Baltimore-London-Tokyo: Univ. Park Press 1975
Herre, A. W. C.T.: Notes on Philippine sea snakes. Copeia 1, 7–9 (1942)
Herre, A. W.C.T., Rabor, D. S.: Notes on Philippine sea snakes of the genus Laticauda Copeia 4, 282–284(1949)
Hood, V.L., Johnson, J.R.: Acute renal failure with myoglobinuria after tiger snake bite. Med. J. Aust. 2, 638–641(1975)
Karunaratne, K.E.S., Panabokke, R.G.: Sea snake poisoning. Case report. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 75, 91–94(1972)
Kellaway, C.H., Cherry, R.O., Williams, F.E.: The peripheral action of the Australian snake venoms. II. The curare-like action in mammals. Aust. J. exp. Biol. med. Sci. 10, 181–194 (1932)
Knowles, R.: The mechanism and treatment of snake bite in India. Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 15, 72–92(1921)
Kuntz, R. E.: Snakes of Taiwan. U.S. Naval Med. Res. Unit. No. 2, Taipei, Taiwan, 1963
Lamb, G., Hunter, W.K.: On the action of venoms of different species of poisonous snakes on the nervous system. VI. Venom of Enhydrina valakadien Lancet 1907, II, 1017–1019
Lancet, A: Death after adder bite. Lancet 1957/I, 1095
Lee, C.Y.: Chemistry and pharmacology of polypeptide toxins in snake venoms. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. 12, 265–286 (1972)
Marsden, A.T.H., Reid, H.A.: Pathology of sea snake poisoning. Brit. med. J. 1961, I, 1290–1293
M’Kenzie, A: An account of venomous sea snakes on the coast of Madras. Asiatic Res. 13, 329–336 (1820)
Minton, S.A.: Paraspecific protection by elapid and sea snake antivenins. Toxicon 5, 47–55 (1967)
Minton, S.A.: Geographic Distribution of Sea Snakes. In: Dunson, W.A. (Ed.): The Biology of Sea Snakes, pp. 21–31. Baltimore: Univ. Park Press 1975
Nauck, E.G.: Untersuchungen über das Gift einer Seeschlange (Hydrus platurus) des Pazifischen Ozeans. Arch. Schiffts. Trop. Hyg. 33, 167–170 (1929)
Peal, H.W.: Antivenine as an antidote for sea snake bite. Ind. med. Gaz. 37, 276–277 (1903)
Pearson, C.M., Beck, W.S., Bland, W.H.: Idiopathic paroxysmal myoglobinuria; detailed study of a case including radioisotope and serum enzyme evaluations. Arch, intern. Med. 99, 376 – 389(1957)
Pickwell, G. V.: The venomous sea snakes. Fauna 4, 17–32 (1972)
Reid, G., Jenkins, G.: The liberation of renin from the kidney by tissue injury with cobra venom. Aust. J. exp. Biol. med. Sci. 26, 215–222 (1948)
Reid, H.A.: Sea snake bite research. Trans, roy. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 50, 517–542 (1956a)
Reid, H. A.: Sea snake bites. Brit. med. J. 1956b, II, 73–78
Reid, H.A.: Three fatal cases of sea snake bite. In: Buckley, E.E., Porges, N. (Eds.): Venoms, pp. 367–371. Washington, D.C.: Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1956c
Reid, H.A.: Antivenene reaction following accidental sea snake bite. Br. Med. J. 2, 26–29 (1957)
Reid, H.A.: The natural history of sea-snake bite and poisoning: a clinical study. M.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1960
Reid, H. A.: Myoglobinuria and sea snake bite poisoning. Br. med. J. 1961a, I, 1284–1289
Reid, H.A.: Diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of sea snake bite. Lancet 1961b, II, 399–402
Reid, H. A.: Sea snake antivenene: successful trial. Brit. med. J. 1962, II, 576–579
Reid, H. A.: Epidemiology of sea snake bites. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 78, 106–113 (1975 a)
Reid, H. A.: Antivenom in sea snake bite poisoning. Lancet 1975bII, 622–623
Reid, H.A.: Epidemiology and Clinical Aspects of Sea Snake Bites. In: Dunson, W.A. (Ed.): The Biology of Sea Snakes, pp. 417–462. Baltimore: Univ. Park Press 1975c
Reid, H.A.: Venom yields from snakes biting man. (Unpublished data) (1976)
Reid, H. A., Chan, K. E.: The paradox in therapeutic defibrination. Lancet 1968, I, 485–486
Reid, H.A., Lim, K.J.: Sea-snake bite: a survey of fishing villages in north-west Malaya. Brit. med. J. 1957, II, 1266–1272
Reid, H.A., Thean, P.C., Martin, W.J.: Specific antivenene and prednisone in viper-bite poisoning: controlled trial. Brit. med. J. 1963, II, 1378–1380
Rogers, L.: On the physiological action of the poison of the Hydrophiidae Proc. roy. Soc. 71, 481–496(1902–1903)
Rogers, L.: On the physiological action of the poison of the Hydrophiidae Part II. Action on the circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems. Proc. roy. Soc. 72, 305–310 (1903–1904)
Romer, J.D.: Illustrated Guide to the Venomous Snakes of Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Government Pr. 1972
Sitprija, V., Sribhibhadh, R., Benyajati, C.: Haemodialysis in poisoning by sea snake venom. Brit. med. J. 1971, III, 218–219
Smith, M. A.: Monograph of the Sea Snakes (Hydrophiidae). London: British Museum (Natural History) 1926
Swaroop, S., Grab, B.: Snake bite mortality in the world. Bull. Wld. Hlth. Org. 10, 35–76 (1954)
Tamiya, N.: Sea Snake Venoms and Toxins. In: Dunson, W.A. (Ed.): The Biology of Sea Snakes, pp. 385–415. Baltimore: Univ. Park Press 1975
Tu, A.T.: Neurotoxins of animal venoms: snakes. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 42, 235–258 (1973)
Tu, A. T.: Sea snake investigation in the Gulf of Thailand. J. Herpetol. 8, 201–210 (1974)
Tu, A. T., Ganthavorn, S.: Immunological properties and neutralization of sea snake venoms from southeast Asia. Amer. J. trop. Med. Hyg. 18, 151–154 (1969)
Wall, F.: The Snakes of Ceylon. Colombo: H. R. Cottle 1921
Walton, J. N., Adams, R. D.: Polymyositis. Edinburgh: Livingstone 1958
Whishnant, C.L., Owings, R.H., Cantrell, C.G., Cooper, G.R.: Primary idiopathic myoglobinuria in a negro female: its implications and a new method of laboratory diagnosis. Ann. intern. Med. 51, 140–150(1959)
Wrogemann, K., Pena, S.D.: Mitochondrial calcium overload: a general mechanism for cell-necrosis in muscle disease. Lancet 1976I, 672–674
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1979 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Reid, H.A. (1979). Symptomatology, Pathology and Treatment of the Bites of Sea Snakes. In: Lee, CY. (eds) Snake Venoms. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 52. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-66913-2_25
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-66913-2_25
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-66915-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-66913-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive