Abstract
If, as is often the case, pregnancy and the survival/acceptance of the semiallogeneic embryo can be referred to as a paradox, we can surely regard the existence of circulating immune cells on the “wrong” side of the fetoplacental barrier, as nothing less than a self-contradiction. The presence and possible functional consequences of fetal cells such as lymphocytes in maternal blood and vice versa is fascinating, provocative, and challenging from a number of biological, ethical, and philosophical aspects. This review summarizes the evidence that such a curious cell traffic does in fact take place in human pregnancy.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Adinolfi M (1993) The maternal-fetal interaction:some controversies and solutions. Exp Clin Immunogenet 10:103–117
Adinolfi M, Camporese C, Carr T (1989) Gene amplification to detect fetal nucleated cells in pregnant women. Lancet ii:328–329
Adkison LR, Andrews RH, Vowell NL, Koontz WL (1994) Improved detection of fetal cells from maternal blood with polymerase chain reaction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170:952–955
Agrawal S, Sharma RK, Kishore R, Agarwal SS (1994) Development of anti-idiotypic antibodies to HLA antigens during pregnancy. Indian J Med Res 99:42–46
Ahrons S (1971) HL-A antibodies:influence on the human foetus. Tissue Antigens 1:129–136
Alain G, Carrier C, Beaumier L, Bernard J, Lemay M, Lavoie A (1993) In utero acute graft-versus-host disease in a neonate with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Am Acad Dermatol 29:862–865
Altemani AM (1992) Immunohistochemical study of the inflammatory infiltrate in villitis of unknown etiology. A qualitative and quantitative analysis. Pathol Res Pract 188:303–330
Amoroso EC, Perry JS (1975) The existence during gestation of an immunological buffer zone at the interface between maternal and fetal tissues. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 271:343–361
Anderson JM (1971) Transplantation–nature’s success. Lancet ii:1077–1082
Anderson JM (1982) The effects of transplacental cell (antigen) traffic. J Reprod Fertil [Suppl] 31:161–173 Anderson JM, Ferguson-Smith MA (1971) Nature’s transplant. BMJ 2:166–167
Antczak DF (1989) Maternal antibody responses in pregnancy. Curr Opin Immunol 1:1135–1140
Balasch J, Ercilla G, Vanrell JA, Vives J (1981) Effects of HLA antibodies on pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 57:444–446
Barrett MJ, Buckley RH, Schiff SE, Kidd PC, Ward FE (1988) Accelerated development of immunity following transplantation of maternal marrow stem cells into infants with severe combined immunodeficiency and transplacentally acquired lymphoid chimerism. Clin Exp Immunol 72:118–123
Bassukas ID (1992) Is erythema toxicum neonatorum a mild self-limited acute cutaneous graft-versus-host-reaction from maternal-to-fetal lymphocyte transfer? Med Hypotheses 38:334–338
Beer AE, Billingham RE (1974) The embryo as a transplant. Sci Am 230:36–46
Beer AE, Sio JO (1982) Placenta as an immunological barrier. Biol Reprod 26:15–27
Benirschke K, Kaufmann P (1990) Pathology of the human placenta. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Bianchi DW (1995) Prenatal diagnosis by analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. J Pediatr 127:847–856
Bianchi DW, Zickwolf GK, Weil GJ, Sylvester S, DeMaria MA (1996) Male fetal progenitor cells persist in maternal blood for as long as 27 years postpartum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:705–708
Billington WD (1992) The normal fetomaternal immune relationship. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynecol 6:413–438
Borzy MS, Magenis E, Tomar D (1984) Bone marrow transplantation for severe combined immune deficiency in an infant with chimerism due to intrauterine-derived maternal lymphocytes:donor engraftment documented by chromosomal marker studies. Am J Med Genet 18:527–553
Burton GJ, Tham SW (1992) Formation of vasculo-syncytial membranes in the human placenta. J Dev Physiol 18:43–47
Butcher EC, Picker LJ (1996) Lymphocyte homing and homeostasis. Science 272:60–66
Ciaranfi A, Curchod A, Odartchenko N (1977) Survie de lymphocytes foetaux dans le sang maternel postpartum (in French). Schweiz Med Wochenschr 107:134–138
Cohen F, Zuelzer WW (1965) The transplacental passage of maternal erythrocytes into the fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 93:566–569
Cohen F, Zuelzer WW, Gustafson DC, Evans MM (1964) Transplacental bleeding from the fetus. Blood 23:621–646
Cramblett HG, Friedman JL, Najjar S (1958) Leukemia in an infant born of a mother with leukemia. N Engl J Med 259:727–729
Cramer DV, Kunz HW, Gill TJ III (1974) Immunologic sensitization prior to birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 120:431–439
Daunter B (1992) Immunology of pregnancy:towards a unifying hypothesis. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 43:81–95
De Almeida V, Bowman JM (1994) Massive fetomaternal hemorrhage:Manitoba experience. Obstet Gynecol 83:323–328
De Grouchy J, Trebuchet C (1971) Transfusion foeto-maternelle de lymphocytes sanguins et detection du sexe du foetus (in French). Ann Genet 14:133–137
de Sousa M (1994) Lymphocyte traffic and positioning in vivo:an expanded role for the ECM, the VLA proteins and the cytokines. Pathol Res Pract 190:840–850
Desai RG, Creger WP (1963) Maternofetal passage of leukocytes and platelets in man. Blood 21:665–673
Diamandopoulos GTH, Hertig AT (1963) Transmission of leukemia and allied diseases from mother to fetus. Obstet Gynecol 21:150–154
El-Alfi OS, Hathout H (1969) Maternofetal transfusion:immunologic and cytogenetic evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 103:599–600
Enders A (1968) Fine structure of anchoring villi of the human placenta. Am J Anat 122:419–451
Ferreira SH, Vane JR (1967) Prostaglandins. Their disappearance from and release into the circulation. Nature 216:868–873
Finn R, Davis JC, Hill CA, Hipkin LJ, Hervey M (1976) The placenta as an immunological barrier. BMJ 2:527
Fox H (1978) Pathology of the placenta. Saunders, Philadelphia
Ganshirt-Ahlert D, Pohlschmidt M, Gal A, Miny P, Horst J, Holzgreve W (1990) Ratio of fetal to maternal DNA is less than 1 in 5000 at different gestational ages in maternal blood. Clin Genet 38:38–43
Geha RS, Reinherz E (1983) Identification of circulating maternal T and B lymphocytes in uncomplicated severe combined immunodeficiency by HLA typing of subpopulations of T cells separated by the fluorescence activated cell sorter and of Epstein Barr virus derived B cell lines. J Immunol 130:2493–2495
Geifman-Holtzman O, Blatman RN, Bianchi DW (1994) Prenatal genetic diagnosis by isolation and analysis of fetal cells circulating in maternal blood. Semin Perinatol 18:366–375
Geifman-Holtzman O, Holtzman EJ, Vadnais TJ, Philips VE, Capeless EL, Bianchi DW (1995) Detection of fetal HLA-DQ-alpha sequences in maternal blood–a gender-independent technique of fetal cell identification. Prenat Diagn 15:261–268
Geifman-Holtzman O, Holtzman EJ, Vadnais TJ, Philips VE, Capeless EL, Bianchi DW (1995) Detection of fetal HLA-DQ-alpha sequences in maternal blood–a gender-independent technique of fetal cell identification. Prenat Diagn 15:261–268
Githens JH, Muschenheim F, Fulginiti VA, Robinson A, Kay HEM (1969) Thymic alymphoplasia with XX/XY lymphoid chimerism secondary to probable maternal-fetal transfusion. J Pediatr 75:87–94
Golob E, Kunze-Muhl E (1971) Feto-maternal crossing of lymphocytes and its eventual significance in prenatal sex diagnosis (in German). Z Geburtshilfe Perinatol 175:132–138
Grosset L, Barrelet V, Odartchenko N (1974) Antenatal fetal sex determination from maternal blood during early pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 120:60–63
Haig D (1993) Genetic conflict in human pregnancy. Q Rev Biol 68:495–532
Hamada H, Arinami T, Kubo T, Hamaguchi H, Iwasaki H (1993) Fetal nucleated cells in maternal peripheral blood:frequency and relationship to gestational age. Hum Genet 91:427–432
Hamilton MS, Becker J, Hamilton BL (1988) Maternally-induced graft-vs-host disease to minor antigens as a possible etiology of an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in mice. Cancer Detect Prev 12:205–210
Hansen JA, Good RA, Dupont B (1977) HLA-D compatibility between parent and child. Increased occurrences in severe combined immunodeficiency and other hematopoietic diseases. Transplantation 23:366–374
Hard RC Jr, Slosberg AM, Salzberg AM (1991) Use of polymorphic DNA probes to test the lymph nodes of infants and fetuses for spontaneous chimerism. Arch Pathol Lab Med 115:891–894
Hawes CS, Suskin HA, Petropoulos A, Latham SE, Mueller UW (1994) A morphologic study of trophoblast isolated from peripheral blood of pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 170:1297–1300
Herzenberg LA, Bianchi DW, Schroder J, Cann HM, Iverson GM (1979) Fetal cells in the blood of pregnant women:detection and enrichment by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 76:1453–1455
Hoff C, Peterson RDA (1995) Associations between maternal and fetal serum levels of immune activation markers and fetal growth. Am J Hum Biol 7:453–458
Holzgreve W, Garritsen HP, Ganshirt-Ahlert D (1992) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation. J Reprod Med 37:410–418
Horton JE, Oppenheim JJ, Chan SP, Baker JJ (1976) Relationship of transformation of newborn human lymphocytes by dental plaque antigen to the degree of maternal periodontal disease. Cell Immunol 21:153–160
Hsieh T-T, Pao CC, Hor JJ, Kao S-M (1993) Presence of fetal cells in maternal circulation after delivery. Hum Genet 92:294–295
Hunt DWC, Huppertz H-I, Jiang H-J, Petty RE (1994) Studies of human cord blood dendritic cells:evidence for functional immaturity. Blood 84:4333–4343
Hunziker RD, Wegmann TG (1986) Placental immunoregulation. CRC Crit Rev Immunol 6:245–285
Iverson GM, Bianchi DW, Cann HM, Herzenberg LA (1981) Detection and isolation of fetal cells from maternal blood using the fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS). Prenat Diagn 1:61–73
Jacobs PA, Smith PG (1969) Practical and theoretical implications of fetal/maternal lymphocyte transfer. Lancet ii:745
Jackson GM, Scott JR (1992) Alloimmune conditions and pregnancy. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynecol 3:541–563
Kadowaki J-I, Zuelzer WW, Brough AJ, Thompson R, Woolley PV Jr, Gruber D (1965) XX/XY lymphoid chimerism in congenital immunological deficiency syndrome with thymic alymphoplasia. Lancet ii:1152–1155
Kaplan C, Blanc WA, Elias J (1982) Identification of erythrocytes in intervillous thrombi:a study using immunoperoxidase identification of hemoglobins. Hum Pathol 13:554–556
Kirsch-Volders M, Lissens-van Assche E, Susanne C (1980) Increase in the amount of fetal lymphocytes in maternal blood during pregnancy. J Med Genet 17:267–272
Kline BS (1948) Microscopic observations of the placental barrier in transplacental erythrocytic anemia (erythroblastosis fetalis) and in normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 56:226–237
Knobloch V, Miller I (1988) The development of immunological relationship between mother and fetus under physiological and pathological conditions. Allergy Immunol 34:219–231
Kulozik A, Pawlowitzki H (1982) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation:detection by direct AFP-immunofluorescence. Hum Genet 62:221–224
Labarrere C, Faulk WP (1995) Maternal cells in chorionic villi from placentae of normal and abnormal human pregnancies. Am J Reprod Immunol 33:54–59
Lafferty KJ (1995) Role of second signals in the induction of T cells and graft rejection. Immunologist 5–6:256–258
Leiser R, Kaufmann P (1994) Placental structure:in a comparative aspect. Exp Clin Endocrinol 102:122–134
Liou J-D, Pao CC, Hor J-J, Kao S-M (1993) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation during first trimester in pregnancies. Hum Genet 92:309–311
Lischner HW, Punett HH, DiGeorge AM (1967) Lymphocytes in congenital absence of the thymus. Nature 214:580–582
Lo Y-MD, Wainscoat JS, Gillmer MDG, Patel P, Sampietro M, Fleming KA (1989) Prenatal sex determination by DNA amplification from maternal peripheral blood. Lancet ii:1363–1365
Lo Y-MD, Patel P, Sampietro M, Gillmer MDG, Fleming KA, Wainscoat JS (1990) Detection of single-copy fetal DNA sequence from maternal blood. Lancet 335:1463–1464
Lo Y-MD, Patel P, Baigent CN, Gillmer MDG, Chamberlain P, Travi M, Sampietro M, Wainscoat JS, Fleming KA (1993) Prenatal sex determination from maternal peripheral blood using the polymerase chain reaction. Hum Genet 90:483–488
Manyonda IT, Pereira RS, Pearce JM, Sharrock CE (1993) Limiting dilution analysis of the allo-MHC anti-paternal cytotoxic T cell response. I. Normal primigravid and multiparous pregnancies. Clin Exp Immunol 93:126–131
Masseyef R, Soubiran P, Philip PJM, Aynaud N (1983) In:Edelman P, Sureau C (eds) Immunologic de la reproduction humaine. Boz, Paris, pp 93–96
Miyagawa Y (1984) Further characterization of IgM antibodies against maternal alloreactive T cells produced by cloned Epstein Barr virus transformed cord B cells. J Immunol 133:1270–1277
Morin-Papunen L, Tiilikainen A, Hartikainen-Sorri AL (1984) Maternal HLA immunization during pregnancy:presence of anti-HLA antibodies in half of multigravidous women. Med Biol 62:323–325
Moszkowski EF, Eby B, Shocket C, Govila V (1971) Cytogenetic evidence for materno-fetal transfusion of polymorphonuclears. J Reprod Med 6:26–28
Mueller UW, Hawes CS, Wright AE, Petropoulos A, DeBoni E, Firgaira FA, Morley AA, Turner DR, Jones WR(1990) Isolation of fetal trophoblast cells from peripheral blood of pregnant women. Lancet 336:197–200
Mues B, Langer D, Zwadlo G, Sorg C (1989) Phenotypic characterization of macrophages in human term placenta. Immunology 67:303–307
Nakagome Y, Seki S, Nagafuchi S, Nakahori Y, Sato K (1991) Absence of fetal cells in maternal circulation at a level of 1 in 25000. Am J Med Genet 40:596–508
Neppert J, Mueller-Eckhardt G, Neumeyer H, Malchus R, Kiefel V, Gerhard I, Kuhn V, Westphal E, Harpprecht J (1989) Pregnancy maintaining antibodies:workshop report (Giessen, 1988). J Reprod Immunol 15:156–167
Olding L (1972) The possibility of materno-foetal transfer of lymphocytes in man. Acta Pediatr Scand 61:73–75
O’Reilly RJ, Keever CA, Small TN, Broschtein J (1989) The use of HLA-non-identical T-cell depleted marrow transplants for correction of severe combined immunodeficiency disease. Immunodefic Rev 1:273–281
Osada S, Horibe K, Oiwa K, Yoshida J, Iwamura H, Matsuoka H, Adachi K, Ohno R, Ueda R (1990) A case of infantile acute monocytic leukemia caused by vertical transmission of the mother’s leukemic cells. Cancer 65:1146–1149
Ossa JE, Cadavid AP, Maldonado JG (1994) Is the immune system necessary for placental reproduction? A hypothesis on the mechanisms of alloimmunotherapy in recurrent spontaneous abortion. Med Hypotheses 42:193–197
Papadogiannakis N (1995) (-)-Indolactam induced mitogenesis in human fetal/neonatal and adult T cells:lower response of neonatal cells and possible regulatory role of monocytes in protein kinase C mediated pathways. Cell Immunol 162:288–294
Papadogiannakis N, Johnsen SA, Olding LB (1986) Monocyte regulated hyporesponsiveness of human cord blood lymphocytes to OKT3 monoclonal antibody induced mitogenesis. Scand J Immunol 23:91–99
Papadogiannakis N, Johnsen SA, Olding LB (1990) Suppressor cell activity in human cord blood. In:Chaouat G (ed) Immunology of the fetus. CRC, Roca Baton, pp 215–227
Parks DR, Herzenberg LA (1982) Fetal cells from maternal blood:their selection and prospects for use in prenatal diagnosis. Methods Cell Biol 26:277–295
Petit T, Gluckman E, Carosella E, Brossard Y, Brison O, Socie G (1995) A highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction method reveals the ubiquitous presence of maternal cells in human umbilical cord blood. Exp Hematol 23:1601–1605
Pollack MS, Kirkpatrick D, Kapoor N, Dupont B, O’Reilly RJ (1982) Identification by HLA typing of intrauterine derived maternal T cells in four patients with severe combined immunodeficiency. N Engl J Med 307:662–666
Redline RW, Patterson P (1993) Villitis of unknown etiology is associated with major infiltration of fetal tissue by maternal inflammatory cells. Am J Pathol 143:473–479
Redman CW (1986) Immunology of the placenta. Clin Obstet Gynecol 13:469–499
Reed E, Beer AE, Hutcherson H, West King D, Suciu-Foca N (1991) The alloantibody response of pregnant women and its suppression by soluble HLA antigens and anti-idiotypic antibodies. J Reprod Immunol 20:115–128
Ridge JP, Ephraim JF, Matzinger P (1996) Neonatal tolerance revisited:turning on newborn T cells with dendritic cells. Science 271:1723–1726
Rigby PG, Hanson TA, Smith RS (1964) Passage of leukemic cells across the placenta. N Engl J Med 271:124–127
Robertson WB, Warner B (1974) The ultrastructure of the human placental bed. J Pathol 112:203–211
Rogall H, Zinser HK (1973) Prenatal sex determination through demonstration of the Y-chromatin in blood leukocytes of pregnant women (in German). Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd 33:277–281
Schindler A-M, Graf E, Martin-du-Pan R (1972) Prenatal diagnosis of fetal lymphocytes in the maternal blood. Obstet Gynecol 40:340–346
Schmorl G (1893) Pathologisch-anatomische Untersuchungen iiber puerperal Eklampsie (in German). Vogel, Leipzig Schröder J (1974) Passage of leukocytes from mother to fetus. Scand J Immunol 3:369–373
Schröder J (1975a) Transplacental passage of blood cells. J Med Genet 12:230–242
Schröder J (1975b) Are fetal cells in maternal blood mainly B lymphocytes? Scand J Immunol 4:279–285 Schröder J, de la Chapelle A (1972) Fetal lymphocytes in the maternal blood. Blood 39:153–162
Schröder J, Tiilikainen A, de la Chapelle A (1974) Fetal leukocytes in the maternal circulation after delivery. I. Cytological aspects. Transplantation 17:346–354
Schröder J, Schroder E, Cann HM (1977) Fetal cells in maternal blood. Lack of response of fetal cells in maternal blood to mitogens and mixed leukocyte culture. Hum Genet 38:91–97
Selypes A, Lorencz R (1988) A noninvasive method for determination of the sex and karyotype of the fetus from the maternal blood. Hum Genet 79:357–359
Senyei AE, Wassman ER (1993) Fetal cells in the maternal circulation. Technical considerations for practical application to prenatal diagnosis. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 20:583–598
Sharpe HBA (1970) Human foetal maternal barrier. Nature 226:453–454
Shimamura M, Ohta S, Suzuki R, Yamazaki K. (1994) Transmission of maternal blood cells to the fetus during pregnancy:detection in mouse neonatal spleen by immunofluoerescence flow cytometry and polymerase chain reaction. Blood 83:926–930
Siebers JW, Knauf I, Hilemanns HG, Vogel W (1975) Antenatal sex determination in blood from pregnant women. Humangenetik 28:273–280
Simpson JL, Elias S ed (1994) Fetal cells in maternal blood. Prospects for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 731:1–262
Sottini A, Quiros-Roldan E, Notarangelo L, Malagoli A, Primi D, Imberti L (1995) Engrafted maternal T cells in a severe combined immunodeficiency patient express T cell receptor variable beta segments characterized by a restricted V-D-J junctional diversity. Blood 85:2105–2113
Splawski JB, Jelinek DF, Lipsky PE (1991) Delineation of the functional capacity of human neonatal lymphocytes. J Clin Invest 87:545–553
Starzl TE, Demetris AJ, Murase N, Trucco M, Thomson AW, Rao AS (1995) The changing immunology of organ transplantation. Hosp Pract 60:31–42
Takahara H, Kadotani T, Kusumi I, Makino S (1972) Some critical aspects on prenatal diagnosis of sex in leukocyte cultures from pregnant women. Proc Jpn Acad 48:603–607
Taylor AI, Polani PE (1965) XX/XY mosaicism in man. Lancet i:1226
Tharapel AT, Jaswaney VL, Dockter ME, Wachtel SS, Chandler RW, Simpson JL, Shulman LP, Meyers CM, Elias S (1993) Inability to detect fetal metaphases in flow-sorted lymphocyte cultures based on maternal-fetal HLA differences. Fetal Diagn Ther 8:95–101
Thomas MR, Tutschek B, Frost A, Rodeck CH, Yazdani N, Craft I, Williamson R (1995) The time of appearance and disappearance of fetal DNA from the maternal circulation. Prenat Diagn 15:641–64
Thong YH, Hurtado RC, Rola-Pleszczynski M, Hensen SA, Vincent MM, Micheletti SA, Bellanti JA (1974) Transplacental transmission of cell mediated immunity. Lancet i:1286–1287
Tiilikainen A, Schroder J, de la Chapelle A (1974) Fetal leukocytes in the maternal circulation after delivery. II. Masking of HL-A antigens. Transplantation 17:355–360
Turner JH, Wald N, Quinlivan WLG (1966) Cytogenetic evidence concerning possible transplacental transfer of leukocytes in pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 95:831–833
Vaidya S, Mamlok R, Daeschner CW, Williams J, Ruth J, Goldblum RM (1991) Suppression of graft- versus-host reaction in severe combined immunodeficiency with maternal-fetal engraftment. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 13:172–175
Wahn V, Yokota S, Meyer KL, Janssen JWG, Hansen-Hagge TE, Knobloch C, Koletzko S, Stein H, Friedrich W, Bartram CR (1991) Expansion of a maternally derived monoclonal T cell population with CD3 + /CD8 + /T cell receptor-γ/δ+ phenotype in a child with severe combined immunodeficiency. J Immunol 147:2934–2941
Walknowska J, Conte FA, Grumbach MM (1969) Practical and theoretical implications of fetal/maternal lymphocyte transfer. Lancet i:l 119–1122
Wessmann M, Ylinen K, Knuutila S (1992) Fetal granulocytes in maternal venous blood detected by in situ hybridization. Prenat Diagn 12:993–1000
Whang-Peng J, Leikin S, Lee HE, Sites J (1973) The transplacental passage of fetal leukocytes into the maternal blood. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 142:50–53
Yeoh SC, Sargent IL, Redman CWG, Wordsworth BP, Thein SL (1991) Detection of fetal cells in maternal blood. Prenat Diagn 11:117–123
Ziliacus R, de la Chapelle A, Schröder J, Tiilikainen A, Kohne E, Kleihauer E (1975a) Transplacental passage of foetal blood cells. Scand J Hematol 15:333–338
Ziliacus R, de la Chapelle A, Schroder J, Tiilikainen A (1975b) Massive invasion of fetal lymphocytes into the mother’s blood at induced abortion. Scand J Immunol 4:601–605
Zimmerman A, Schmickel R (1971) Fluorescent bodies in maternal circulation. Lancet i:1305
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1997 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Papadogiannakis, N. (1997). Traffic of Leukocytes Through the Maternofetal Placental Interface and Its Possible Consequences. In: Olding, L.B. (eds) Reproductive Immunology. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 222. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60614-4_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60614-4_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-64475-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-60614-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive