As a direct result of the polio epidemics of the 1950s, critical care medicine developed in the Western world. This new field of medical practice was supported over the following decades by rapid developments in monitoring and therapeutic technologies, by a growing body of knowledge about the physiopathological alterations of the critically ill patient, and by the appearance of new therapeutic strategies. Soon, the intensive care unit (ICU) transformed itself from a small and marginal place in the hospital, where critically ill patients were monitored and treated, to a full hospital department, responsible for the consumption of a growing proportion of the health care budget.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Apgar V (1953) A proposal for a new method of evaluation of the newborn infant. Anaesth Analg 32:260–267
Cullen DJ, Civetta JM, Briggs BA, Ferrara LC (1974) Therapeutic intervention scoring system: a method for quantitative comparison of patient care. Crit Care Med 2:57–60
Knaus WA, Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, Draper EA, Lawrence DE (1981) APACHE — acute physiology and chronic health evaluation: a physiologically based classification system. Crit Care Med 9:591–597
Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, et al (1982) Evaluating outcome from intensive care: A preliminary multihospital comparison. Crit Care Med 10:491–496
Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE (1985) APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med 13:818–829
Le Gall JR, Loirat P, Alperovitch A, et al (1984) A simplified acute physiologic score for ICU patients. Crit Care Med 12:975–977
Lemeshow S, Teres D, Pastides H, et al (1985) A method for predicting survival and mortality of ICU patients using objectively derived weights. Crit Care Med 13:519–525
Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Draper EA, et al (1991) The APACHE III prognostic system. Risk prediction of hospital mortality for critically ill hospitalized adults. Chest 100:1619–1636
Le Gall JR, Lemeshow S, Saulnier F (1993) A new simplified acute physiology score (SAPS II) based on a European/North American multicenter study. JAMA 270:2957–2963
Lemeshow S, Teres D, Klar J, Avrunin JS, Gehlbach SH, Rapoport J (1993) Mortality Probability Models (MPM II) based on an international cohort of intensive care unit patients. JAMA 270:2478–2486
Lemeshow S, Klar J, Teres D, et al (1994) Mortality probability models for patients in the intensive care unit for 48 or 72 hours: a prospective, multicenter study. Crit Care Med 22:1351–1358
Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE (1985) Prognosis in acute organ-system failure. Ann Surg 202:685–693
Bernard G (1997) The Brussels score. Sepsis 1:43–44
Marshall JC, Cook DA, Christou NV, Bernard GR, Sprung CL, Sibbald WJ (1995) Multiple organ dysfunction score: a reliable descriptor of a complex clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 23:1638–1652
Le Gall JR, Klar J, Lemeshow S, et al (1996) The logistic organ dysfunction system. A new way to assess organ dysfunction in the intensive care unit. JAMA 276:802–810
Vincent J-L, Moreno R, Takala J, et al (1996) The SOFA (Sepsis-related organ failure assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure. Intensive Care Med 22:707–710
Baker SP, O’Neill B, Haddon W Jr, Long WB (1974) The injury severity score: a method for describing patients with multiple injuries and evaluating emergency care. J Trauma 14:187–196
Chamion HR, Sacco WJ, Copes WS, Gann DS, Gennarelli TA, Flanagan ME (1989) A revision of the trauma score. J Trauma 29:623–629
Boyd C, Toison M, Copes W (1987) Evaluating trauma care: the TRISS method. J Trauma 27:370–378
Champion HR, Copes WS, Sacco WJ, et al (1996) Improved predictions from a severity characterization of trauma (ASCOT) over trauma and injury severity score (TRISS): results of an independent evaluation. J Trauma 40:42–49
Agarwal N, Pitchumoni CS (1991) Assessment of severity in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 86:1385–1391
Ranson JHC, Rifkind KM, Roses DF, et al (1974) Prognostic signs and the role of operative management in acute pancreatitis. Surg Gynecol Obstet 139:69–81
Osborne DH, Imrie CW, Carter DC (1981) Biliary surgery in the same admission for gallstone-associated acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 68:758–761
Fan ST, Choi TK, Wong J (1989) Prediction of severity of acute pancreatitis: an alternative approach. Gut 30:1591–1595
Tran DD, Cuesta MA (1992) Evaluation of severity in patients with acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 87:604–608
Bradley EL (1993) A clinically based classification system for acute pancreatitis. Arch Surg 128:586–590
Niederau C, Luthen R, Heise JW, Becker H (1993) Prognosis of acute pancreatitis. In: Beger HG, Buchler M, Malfertheiner P (eds) Standards in Pancreatic Surgery, Springer-Verlag, Berlin pp76–91
Tran DD, Cuesta MA, Schneider AJ, Wesdorp RI (1993) Prevalence and prediction of multiple organ system failure and mortality in acute pancreatitis. J Crit Care 8:145–153
Balthazar EJ, Ranson JHC, Naidich DP, Megibaw AJ, Caccavale R, Cooper MM (1985) Acute pancreatitis: prognostic value of CT. Radiology 156:767–772
Larvin M, McMahon MJ (1989) APACHE-II score for assessment and monitoring of acute pancreatitis. Lancet 2:201–205
Wilson C, Heath DI, Imrie CW (1990) Prediction of outcome in acute pancreatitis: a comparative study of APACHE II, clinical assessment and multiple factor scoring systems. Br J Surg 77:1260–1264
Arnell TD, de Virgilio C, Chang L, Bongard F, Stabile BE (1996) Admission factors can predict the need for ICU monitoring in gallstone pancreatitis. Dig Surg 14283–14298
Brisinda G, Maria G, Ferrante A, Civello IM (1999) Evaluation of prognostic factors in patients with acute pancreatitis. Hepatogastroenterology 46:1990–1997
Armengol-Carrasco M, Oller B, Escudero LE, et al (1999) Specific prognostic factors for secondary pancreatic infection in severe acute pancreatitis. Dig Surg 16:125–129
Williams M, Simms H (1999) Prognostic usefulness of scoring systems in critically ill patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Crit Care Med 27:901–907
Matos R, Moreno R, Fevereiro T (2000) Severity evaluation in acute pancreatitis: the role of SOFA score and general severity scores. Crit Care 4:S138 (abst)
Dragsted L, Jorgensen J, Jensen NH, et al (1989) Interhospital comparisons of patient outcome from intensive care: importance of lead-time bias. Crit Care Med 17:418–422
Tunnell RD, Millar BW, Smith GB (1998) The effect of lead time bias on severity of illness scoring, mortality prediction and standardised mortality ratio in intensive care — a pilot study. Anaesthesia 53:1045–1053
Lundberg JS, Perl TM, Wiblin T, et al (1998) Septic shock: an analysis of outcomes for patients with onset on hospital wards versus intensive care units. Crit Care Med 26:1020–1024
Moreno R, Apolone G (1997) The impact of different customization strategies in the performance of a general severity score. Crit Care Med 25:2001–2008
Metnitz PG, Valentin A, Vesely H, et al (1999) Prognostic performance and customization of the SAPS II: results of a multicenter Austrian study. Intensive Care Med 25:192–197
Rivera-Fernandez R, Vazquez-Mata G, Bravo M, et al (1998) The Apache III prognostic system: customized mortality predictions for Spanish ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 24:574–581
Abizanda Campos R, Balerdi B, Lopez J, et al (1994) Fallos de prediccion de resultados mediante APACHE II. Analisis de los errores de prediction de mortalidad en pacientes criticos. Med Clin Bare 102:527–531
Fery-Lemmonier E, Landais P, Kleinknecht D, Brivet F (1995) Evaluation of severity scoring systems in the ICUs: translation, conversion and definitions ambiguities as a source of interobserver variability in APACHE II, SAPS, and OSE Intensive Care Med 21:356–360
Rowan K (1996) The reliability of case mix measurements in intensive care. Curr Opin Crit Care 2:209–213
Bosman RJ, Oudemane van Straaten HM, Zandstra DF (1998) The use of intensive care information systems alters outcome prediction. Intensive Care Med 24:953–958
Damiano AM, Bergner M, Draper EA, Knaus WA, Wagner DP (1992) Reliability of a measure of severity of illness: acute physiology and chronic health evaluation -II. J Clin Epidemiol 45:93–101
Goldhill DR, Sumner A (1998) APACHE II, data accuracy and outcome prediction. Anaesthesia 53:937–943
Polderman KH, Thijs LG, Girbes AR (1999) Interobserver variability in the use of APACHE II scores. Lancet 353:380
Chen LM, Martin CM, Morrison TL, Sibbald WJ (1999) Interobserver variability in data collection of the APACHE II score in teaching and community hospitals. Crit Care Med 27:1999–2004
Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P, et al (1995) A trial of goal orientated hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 333:1025–1032
Galbân C, Montejo JC, Masejo A, et al (2000) An immune-enhancing enteral diet reduces mortality rate and episodes of bacteremia in septic intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 28:643–648
Moreno R, Estrada H, Miranda I, Massa L (1994) SAPS II over time: a preliminary study. Clin Intensive Care 5:S122 (abst)
Wagner DP, Knaus WA, Harrel Jr. FE, Zimmerman JE, Watts C (1994) Daily prognostic estimates for critically ill adults in intensive care units: results from a prospective, multicenter, inception cohort analysis. Crit Care Med 22:1359–1372
Chang RW (1989) Individual outcome prediction models for intensive care units. Lancet i:143–146
Jacobs S, Arnold A, Clyburn PA, Willis BA (1992) The Riyadh intensive care program applied to a mortality analysis of a teaching hospital intensive care unit. Anaesthesia 47:775–780
Perkins HS, Jonsen AR, Epstein WV (1986) Providers as predictors: using outcome predictions in intensive care. Crit Care Med 14:105–110
Silverstein MD (1988) Predicting instruments and clinical judgement in critical care. JAMA 260:1758–1759
Dawes RM, Faust D, Mechl PE (1989) Clinical versus actuarial judgement. Science 243:1668–74.
Kleinmuntz B (1990) Why we still use our heads instead of formulas: toward an integrative approach. Psychol Bull 107:296–310
McClish DK, Powell SH (1989) How well can physicians estimate mortality in a medical intensive care unit? Med Decis Making 9:125–132
Poses RM, Bekes C, Winkler RL, Scott WE, Copare F J (1990) Are two (inexperienced) heads better than one (experienced) head? Averaging house officers prognostic judgement for critically ill patients. Arch Intern Med 150:1874–1878
Poses RM, Bekes C, Copare FJ, et al (1989) The answer to “what are my chances, doctor?” depends on whom is asked: prognostic disagreement and inaccuracy for critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 17:827–833
Winkler RL, Poses RM (1993) Evaluating and combining physicians probabilities of survival in an intensive care unit. Manag Sci 39:1526–1543
Marcin JP, Pollack MM, Patel KM, Ruttimann UE (1998) Decision support issues using a physiology based score. Intensive Care Med 24:1299–1304
Chang RWS, Lee B, Jacobs S, Lee B (1989) Accuracy of decisions to withdraw therapy in critically ill patients: clinical judgement versus a computer model. Crit Care Med 17:1091–1097
Knaus WA, Rauss A, Alperovitch A, et al (1990) Do objective estimates of chances for survival influence decisions to withhold or withdraw treatment? Med Decis Making 10:163–171
Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, Draper EA, Knaus WA (1994) Improving intensive care unit discharge decisions: supplementary physician judgment with predictions of next day risk for life support. Crit Care Med 22:1373–1384
Branner AL, Godfrey LJ, Goetter WE (1989) Prediction of outcome from critical illness: a comparison of clinical judgement with a prediction rule. Arch Intern Med 149:1083–1086
Kruse JA, Thill-Baharozin MC, Carlson RW (1988) Comparison of clinical assessment with APACHE II for predicting mortality risk in patients admitted to a medical intensive care unit. JAMA 260:1739–1742
Marks RJ, Simons RS, Blizzard RA, et al (1991) Predicting outcome in intensive therapy units — a comparison of APACHE II with subjective assessments. Intensive Care Med 17:159–163
Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Lynn J (1991) Short-term mortality predictions for critically ill hospitalized adults: science and ethics. Science 254:389–394
Lemeshow S, Klar J, Teres D (1995) Outcome prediction for individual intensive care patients: useful, misused, or abused ? Intensive Care Med 21:770–776
Suter P, Armagandis A, Beaufils F, et al (1994) Predicting outcome in ICU patients: consensus conference organized by the ESICM and the SRLF. Intensive Care Med 20:390–397
Murray LS, Teasdale GM, Murray GD, et al (1993) Does prediction of outcome alter patient management?. Lancet 341:1487–1491
Knaus WA, Harreil FE, Lynn J, et al (1995) The SUPPORT prognostic model. Objective estimates for seriously ill hospitalized adults. Study to understand prognoses and preferences for outcomes and risks of treatments. Ann Intern Med 122:191–203
Bellamy PE (1997) Why did prognosis presentation not work in the SUPPORT study? Curr Opin Crit Care 3:188–191
Henning RJ, McClish D, Daly B, et al (1987) Clinical characteristics and resource utilization of ICU patients: implementation for organization of intensive care. Crit Care Med 15:264–269
Wagner DP, Knaus WA, Draper EA (1987) Identification of low-risk monitor admissions to medical-surgical ICUs. Chest 92:423–428
Wagner DP, Knaus WA, Draper EA, et al (1983) Identification of low-risk monitor patients within a medical-surgical ICU. Med Care 21:425–433
Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, Knaus WA, Williams JF, Kolakowski D, Draper EA (1995) The use of risk predictors to identify candidates for intermediate care units. Implications for intensive care unit utilization. Chest 108:490–499
Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, Sun X, Knaus WA, Draper EA (1996) Planning patient services for intermediate care units: insights based on care for intensive care unit low-risk monitor admissions. Crit Care Med 24:1626–1632
Strauss MJ, LoGerfo JP, Yeltatzie JA, Temkin N, Hudson LD (1986) Rationing of intensive care unit services. An everyday occurrence. JAMA 255:1143–1146
Civetta JM, Hudson-Civetta JA, Nelson LD (1990) Evaluation of APACHE II for cost containment and quality assurance. Ann Surg 212:266–276
Moreno R, Reis Miranda D (1998) Nursing staff in intensive care in Europe. The mismatch between planning and practice. Chest 113:752–758
Knaus WA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE, Draper EA (1993) Variations in mortality and length of stay in Intensive Care Units. Ann Intern Med 118:753–761
Zimmerman JE, Shortell SM, Knaus WA, et al (1993) Value and cost of teaching hospitals: a prospective, multicenter, inception cohort study. Crit Care Med 21:1432–1442
Rapoport J, Teres D, Lemeshow S, Gehlbach S (1994) A method for assessing the clinical performance and cost-effectiveness of intensive care units: a multicenter inception cohort study. Crit Care Med 22:1385–1391
Teres D, Rapoport J (1991) Identifying patients with high risk of high cost. Chest 99:530–531
Esserman L, Belkora J, Lenert L (1995) Potentially ineffective care. A new outcome to assess the limits of critical care. JAMA 274:1544–1551
Rapoport J, Teres D, Lemeshow S (1998) Can futility be defined numerically? Crit Care Med 26:1781–1782.
Chang RW, Jacobs S, Lee B (1986) Use of APACHE II severity of disease classification to identify intensive-care-unit patients who would not benefit from total parenteral nutrition. Lancet i:1483–1486
Atkinson S, Bihari D, Smithies M, Daly K, Mason R, McColl I (1994) Identification of futility in intensive care. Lancet 344:1203–1206
Shaughnessy TE, Mickler TA (1995) Does acute physiology and chronic health evaluation (APACHE II) scoring predict need for prolonged support after coronary revascularization? Anaesth Analg 81:24–29
Cerra FB, Negro F, Abrams J (1990) APACHE II score does not predict multiple organ failure or mortality in post-operative surgical patients. Arch Surg 125:519–522
Rapoport J, Teres D, Lemeshow S, Avrunin JS, Haber R (1990) Explaining variability of cost using a severity of illness measure for ICU patients. Med Care 28:338–348
Oye RK, Bellamy PF (1991) Patterns of resource consumption in medical intensive care. Chest 99:695–689
Glance LG, Osier T, SWhinozaki T (1998) Intensive care unit prognostic scoring systems to predict death: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Crit Care Med 26:1842–1849
Patel PA, Grant BJ (1999) Application of mortality prediction systems to individual intensive care units. Intensive Care Med 25:977–982
Knaus WA, Draper EA, Wagner DP, Zimmerman JE (1986) An evaluation of outcome from intensive care in major medical centers. Ann Intern Med 104:410–418
Hosmer DW, Lemeshow S (1995) Confidence interval estimates of an index of quality performance based on logistic regression estimates. Stat Med 14:2161–2172
Knaus WA, Le Gall JR, Wagner DP, et al (1982) A comparison of intensive care in the U.S.A. and France. Lancet i:642–646
Sirio CA, Tajimi K, Tase C, et al (1992) An initial comparison of intensive care in Japan and United States. Crit Care Med 20:1207–1215
Rowan KM, Kerr JH, Major E, McPherson K, Short A, Vessey MP (1993) Intensive Care Society’s APACHE II study in Britain and Ireland — II: Outcome comparisons of intensive care units after adjustment for case mix by the American APACHE II method. Br Med J 307:977–981
Rapoport J, Teres D, Barnett R, et al (1995) A comparison of intensive care unit utilization in Alberta and western Massachusetts. Crit Care Med 23:1336–1346
Wong DT, Crofts SL, Gomez M, McGuire GP, Byrick RJ (1995) Evaluation of predictive ability of APACHE II system and hospital outcome in Canadian intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 23:1177–1183
Moreno R, Reis Miranda D, Fidler V, Van Schilfgaarde R (1998) Evaluation of two outcome predictors on an independent database. Crit Care Med 26:50–61
Bastos PG, Sun X, Wagner DP, Knaus WA, Zimmerman JE, The Brazil APACHE III Study Group (1996) Application of the APACHE III prognostic system in Brazilian intensive care units: a prospective multicenter study. Intensive Care Med 22:564–570
Moreno R, Morais P (1997) Outcome prediction in intensive care: results of a prospective, multicentre, Portuguese study. Intensive Care Med 23:177–186
Le Gall JR, Loirat P, Nicolas F, et al (1983) Utilisation d’un indice de gravité dans huit services de réanimation multidisciplinaire. Presse Médicale 12:1757–1761
Zimmerman JE, Rousseau DM, Duffy J, et al (1994) Intensive care at two teaching hospitals: an organizational case study. Am J Crit Care 3:129–138
Goldhill DR, Sumner A (1998) Outcome of intensive care patients in a group of British intensive care units. Crit Care Med 26:1337–1345
Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, Draper EA, Wright L, Alzola C, Knaus WA (1998) Evaluation of acute physiology and chronic health evaluation III predictions of hospital mortality in an independent database. Crit Care Med 26:1317–1326
Chisakuta AM, Alexander JP (1990) Audit in Intensive Care. The APACHE II classification of severity of disease. Ulster Med J 59:161–167
Marsh HM, Krishan I,Naessens JM, et al (1990) Assessment of prediction of mortality by using the APACHE II scoring system in intensive care units. Mayo Clin Proc 65:1549–1557
Turner JS, Mudaliar YM, Chang RW, Morgan CJ (1991) Acute physiology and chronic health evaluation (APACHE II) scoring in a cardiothoracic intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 19:1266–1269
Oh TE, Hutchinson R, Short S, Buckley T, Lin E, Leung D (1993) Verification of the acute physiology and chronic health evaluation scoring system in a Hong Kong intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 21:698–705
Parikh CR, Karnad DR (1999) Quality, cost, and outcome of intensive care in a public hospital in Bombay, India. Crit Care Med 27:1754–1759
Zimmerman JE, Shortell SM, Rousseau DM, et al (1993) Improving intensive care: observations based on organizational case studies in nine intensive care units: a prospective, multicenter study. Crit Care Med 21:1443–1451
Shortell SM, Zimmerman JE, Rousseau DM, et al (1994) The performance of intensive care units: does good management make a difference? Med Care 32:508–525
Reis Miranda D, Ryan DW, Schaufeli WB, Fidler V (1997) Organization and management of intensive care: a prospective study in 12 European countries. Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg.
Randolph AG, Guyatt GH, Carlet J, for the Evidence Based Medicine in Critical Care Group (1998) Understanding articles comparing outcomes among intensive care units to rate quality of care. Crit Care Med 26:773–781
Teres D, Lemeshow S (1993) Using severity measures to describe high performance intensive care units. Crit Care Clin 9:543–554
Goldstein H, Spiegelhalter DJ (1996) League tables and their limitations: statistical issues in comparisons of institutional performance. J R Stat Soc A 159:385–443
Castella X, Gilabert J, Torner F, Torres C (1991) Mortality prediction models in intensive care: Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II and Mortality Prediction Model compared. Crit Care Med 19:191–197
Apolone G, D’Amico R, Bertolini G, et al (1996) The performance of SAPS II in a cohort of patients admitted in 99 Italian ICUs: results from the GiViTI. Intensive Care Med 22:1368–1378
Nouira S, Belghith M, Elatrous S, et al (1998) Predictive value of severity scoring systems: comparison of four models in Tunisian adult intensive care units. Crit Care Med 26:852–859
Hadorn DC, Keeler EB, Rogers WH, Brook RH (1993) Assessing the performance of mortality prediction models. RAND/UCLA/Harvard Center for Health Care Financing Policy Research, Santa Monica
Moreno R, Apolone G, Reis Miranda D (1998) Evaluation of the uniformity of fit of general outcome prediction models. Intensive Care Med 24:40–47
Dybowski R, Weller P, Chang R (1996) Prediction of outcome in critically ill patients using artificial neural network, synthesised by genetic algorithm. Lancet 347:1146–1150
Wong LS, Young JD (1999) A comparison of ICU mortality prediction using the APACHE II scoring system and artificial neural networks. Anaesthesia 54:1048–1054
Green J, Wintfeld N (1995) Report cards on cardiac surgeons: assessing New York State’s approach. N Engl J Med 332:1229–1232
Lemeshow S, Teres D, Avrunin JS, Pastides H (1987) A comparison of methods to predict mortality of intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 15:715–722
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Moreno, R. (2002). Severity of Illness. In: Sibbald, W.J., Bion, J.F. (eds) Evaluating Critical Care. Update in Intensive Care Medicine, vol 35. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56719-3_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56719-3_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-42606-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-56719-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive