Abstract
The first stages in the neuronal processing of image motion take place within the retina. Some types of ganglion cells, which are the output neurones of the retina, are strongly stimulated by image movement in one direction, but are inhibited by movement in the opposite direction. Such direction selectivity represents an early level of complex visual processing which has been intensively studied from morphological, physiological, pharmacological and theoretical perspectives. Although this computation is performed within two or three synapses of the sensory input, the cellular locus and the synaptic mechanisms of direction selectivity have yet to be elucidated.
The classic study by Barlow and Levick (1965) characterized the receptive-field properties of direction-selective (DS) ganglion cells in the rabbit retina and established that there are both inhibitory and facilitatory mechanisms underlying the direction selectivity. In each part (“subunit”) of the receptive field, apparent-motion experiments indicated that a spatially asymmetric, delayed or long-lasting inhibition “vetoes” excitation for movement in one direction (the “null” direction), but not for movement in the opposite direction (the “preferred” direction). In addition, facilitation of excitatory inputs occurs for movement in the preferred direction.
Subsequently, pharmacological experiments indicated that a GABAergic input from lateral association neurones (amacrine cells) may inhibit an excitatory cholinergic input from other amacrine cells and/or a glutamatergic input from second-order intemeurones (bipolar cells). An added complication is that the cholinergic amacrine cells also synthesize and contain GABA, raising the possibility that these “starburst” cells mediate both the excitation and inhibition underlying direction selectivity (Vaney et al. 1989).
This review focuses on recent studies that shed light on the cellular mechanisms that underlie direction selectivity in retinal ganglion cells. He and Masland (1997) have provided compelling evidence that the cholinergic amacrine cells mediate the facilitation elicited by motion in the preferred direction; however, it now appears that the cholinergic facilitation is non-directional, although the null-direction facilitation is normally masked by the directional inhibitory mechanism. The null-direction inhibition may act presynaptically on the excitatory input to the DS ganglion cell; in this case, the release of transmitter from the excitatory neurone would itself be direction selective, at least locally. Alternatively, the null-direction inhibition may act postsynaptically on the ganglion cell dendrites, probably through the non-linear mechanism of shunting inhibition.
In the rabbit retina, there are two distinct types of DS ganglion cells which respond with either On-Off or On responses to flashed illumination; the two types also differ in their specificity for stimulus size and speed and their central projections. The On-Off DS cells comprise four physiological subtypes, whose preferred directions are aligned with the horizontal and vertical ocular axes, whereas the On DS cells comprise three physiological subtypes, whose preferred directions correspond to rotation about the best response axes of the three semicircular canals in the inner ear. The On DS cells, which project to the accessory optic system, appear to respond to global slippage of the retinal image, thus providing a signal that drives the optokinetic reflex. The On-Off DS cells, which are about ten times more numerous than the On DS cells, appear to signal local motion and they may playa key role in the representation of dynamic visual space or the detection of moving objects in the environment.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Amthor FR, Grzywacz NM (1993a) Directional selectivity in vertebrate retinal ganglion cells. In: Miles, FA, Waliman J (eds) Visual motion and its role in the stabilization of gaze. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 79–100
Amthor FR, Grzywacz NM (1993b) Inhibition in ON-OFF directionally selective ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 69: 2174–2187
Amthor FR, Grzywacz NM (1994) Morphological and physiological basis of starburst-ACh amacrine input to directionally selective (DS) ganglion cells in rabbit retina. Soc Neurosci Abstr 20: 217
Amthor FR, Oyster CW (1995) Spatial organization of retinal information about the direction of image motion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 4002–4005
Amthor FR, Oyster CW, Takahashi ES (1984) Morphology of on-off direction-selective ganglion cells in the rabbit retina. Brain Res 298: 187–190
Amthor FR, Takahashi ES, Oyster CW (1989a) Morphologies of rabbit retinal ganglion cells with concentric receptive fields. J Comp Neurol 280: 72–96
Amthor FR, Takahashi ES, Oyster CW (1989b) Morphologies of rabbit retinal ganglion cells with complex receptive fields. J Comp Neurol 280: 97–121
Amthor FR, Grzywacz NM, Merwine DK (1996) Extra-receptive-field motion facilitation in on-off directionally selective ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. Vis Neurosci 13: 303–309
Ariel M, Adolph AR (1985) Neurotransmitter inputs to directionally sensitive turtle retinal ganglion cells. J Neurophysiol 54: 1123–1143
Ariel M, Daw NW (1982) Pharmacological analysis of directionally sensitive rabbit retinal ganglion cells. J Physiol 324: 161–185
Baldridge WH (1996) Optical recordings of the effects of cholinergic ligands on neurons in the ganglion cell layer of mammalian retina. J Neurosci 16: 5060–5072
Barlow HB, Hill RM (1963) Selective sensitivity to direction of motion in ganglion cells of the rabbit’s retina. Science 139: 412–414
Barlow HB, Levick WR (1965) The mechanism of directionally selective units in rabbit’s retina. J Physiol 178: 477–504
Barlow HB, Hill RM, Levick WR (1964) Retinal ganglion cells responding selectively to direction and speed of image motion in the rabbit. J Physiol 173: 377–407
Bloomfield SA, Miller RF (1986) A functional organization of ON and OFF pathways in the rabbit retina. J Neurosci 6: 1–13
Borg-Graham LJ, Grzywacz N (1992) A model of the direction selectivity circuit in retina: transformations by neurons singly and in concert. In: McKenna T, Davis J, Zornetzer SF (eds) Single neuron computation. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 347–375
Borst A, Egelhaaf M (1989) Principles of visual motion detection. Trends Neurosci 12: 297–306
Borst A, Egelhaaf M (1990) Direction selectivity of blowfly motion-sensitive neurons is computed in a two-stage process. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87: 9363–9367
Brandon C (1987) Cholinergic neurons in the rabbit retina: dendritic branching and ultra-structural connectivity. Brain Res 426: 119–130
Brandon C, Criswell MH (1997) Rabbit retinal ganglion cells that project to the medial terminal nucleus are directionally-selective. Soc Neurosci Abstr 23: 1023
Brandstätter JH, Greferath U, Euler T, Wässle H (1995) Co-stratification of GABAA receptors with the directionally selective circuitry of the rat retina. Vis Neurosci 12: 345–358
Brecha N, Johnson D, Peichl L, Wässle H (1988) Cholinergic amacrine cells of the rabbit retina contain glutamate decarboxylase and gamma-aminobutyrate immunoreactivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85: 6187–6191
Brown SP, Masland RH (1999) Costratification of a population of bipolar cells with the direction-selective circuitry of the rabbit retina. J Comp Neurol 408: 97–106
Buhl EH, Peichl L (1986) Morphology of rabbit retinal ganglion cells projecting to the medial terminal nucleus of the accessory optic system. J Comp Neurol 253: 163–174
Caldwell JH, Daw NW, Wyatt HJ (1978) Effects of picrotoxin and strychnine on rabbit retinal ganglion cells: lateral interactions for cells with more complex receptive fields. J Physiol 276: 277–298
Cleland BG, Levick WR (1974) Properties of rarely encountered types of ganglion cells in the cat’s retina and an overall classification. J Physiol 240: 457–492
Cohen ED, Miller RF (1994) The role of NMDA and non-NMDA excitatory amino acid receptors in the functional organization of primate retinal ganglion cells. Vis Neurosci 11: 317–332
Cohen ED, Miller RF (1995) Quinoxalines block the mechanism of directional selectivity in ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 92: 1127–1131
Collewijn H (1969) Optokinetic eye movements in the rabbit: input-output relations. Vision Res 9: 117–132
Collewijn H (1975) Direction-selective units in the rabbit’s nucleus of the optic tract. Brain Res 100: 489–508
Dacey DM (1988) Dopamine-accumulating retinal neurons revealed by in vitro fluorescence display a unique morphology. Science 240: 1196–1198
DeMonasterio FM (1978) Properties of ganglion cells with atypical receptive-field organization in retina of macaques. J Neurophysiol 41: 1435–1449
DeVoe RD, Carras PL, Criswell MH, Gur RB (1989) Not by ganglion cells alone: directional selectivity is widespread in identified cells of the turtle retina. In: Weiler R, Osborne NN (eds) Neurobiology of the inner retina. Springer, Berlin, pp 233–246
DeVries SH, Baylor DA (1995) An alternative pathway for signal flow from rod photoreceptors to ganglion cells in mammalian retina. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92: 10658–10662
DeVries SH, Baylor DA (1997) Mosaic arrangement of ganglion cell receptive fields in rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 78: 2048–2060
Eccles JC (1964) The physiology of synapses. Springer, Berlin
Enz R, Brandstätter JH, Wässle H, Bormann J (1996) Immunocytochemical localization of the GABAc receptor rho subunits in the mammalian retina. J Neurosci 16: 4479–4490
Euler T, Wässle H (1998) Different contributions of GABAA and GABAc receptors to rod and cone bipolar cells in a rat retinal slice preparation. J Neurophysiol 79: 1384–1395
Famiglietti EV (1983) `Starburst’ amacrine cells and cholinergic neurons: mirror-symmetric on and off amacrine cells of rabbit retina. Brain Res 261: 138–144
Famiglietti EV (1987) Starburst amacrine cells in cat retina are associated with bistratified, presumed directionally selective, ganglion cells. Brain Res 413: 404–408
Famiglietti EV (1989) Structural organization and development of dorsally-directed (vertical) asymmetrical amacrine cells in rabbit retina. In: Weiler R, Osborne NN (eds) Neurobiology of the inner retina. Springer, Berlin, pp 169–180
Famiglietti EV (1991) Synaptic organization of starburst amacrine cells in rabbit retina: analysis of serial thin sections by electron microscopy and graphic reconstruction. J Comp Neurol 309: 40–70
Famiglietti EV (1992a) Polyaxonal amacrine cells of rabbit retina: PA2, PA3, and PA4 cells. Light and electron microscopic studies with a functional interpretation. J Comp Neurol 316: 422–446
Famiglietti EV (1992b) New metrics for analysis of dendritic branching patterns demonstrating similarities and differences in ON and ON-OFF directionally selective retinal ganglion cells. J Comp Neurol 324: 295–321
Famiglietti EV (1992c) Dendritic co-stratification of ON and ON-OFF directionally selective ganglion cells with starburst amacrine cells in rabbit retina. J Comp Neurol 324: 322–335
Famiglietti EV, Tumosa N (1987) Immunocytochemical staining of cholinergic amacrine cells inrabbit retina. Brain Res 413: 398–403
Farmer SG, Rodieck RW (1982) Ganglion cells of the cat accessory optic system: morphology and retinal topography. J Comp Neurol 205: 190–198
Feigenspan A, Bormann J (1998) GABA-gated Cl-channels in the rat retina. Prog Retinal Eye Res 17: 99–126
Giolli RA (1961) An experimental study of the accessory optic tracts (transpeduncular tracts and anterior accessory optic tracts) in the rabbit. J Comp Neurol 121: 89–108
Goldberg JM, Fernandez C (1971) Physiology of peripheral neurons innervating semicircular canals of the squirrel monkey. I. Resting discharge and response to constant angular accelerations. J Neurophysiol 34: 635–660
Grzywacz NM, Amthor FR (1989) A computationally robust anatomical model for retinal directional selectivity. In: Touretzky DS (ed) Advances in neural information processing systems I. Morgan Kaufmann, New York, pp 477–484
Grzywacz NM, Amthor FR (1993) Facilitation in ON-OFF directionally selective ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 69: 2188–2199
Grzywacz NM, Amthor FR, Merwine DK (1994) Directional hyperacuity in ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. Vis Neurosci 11: 1019–1025
Grzywacz NM, Tootle JS, Amthor FR (1997) Is the input to a GABAergic or cholinergic synapse the sole asymmetry in rabbit’s retinal directional selectivity? Vis Neurosci 14: 39–54
Grzywacz NM, Amthor FR, Merwine DK (1998) Necessity of acetylcholine for retinal directionally selective responses to drifting gratings in rabbit. J Physiol 512: 575–581
Hassenstein B, Reichardt W (1956) Systemtheoretische Analyse der Zeit-, Reihenfolgen-and Vorzeichenauswertung bei der Bewegungsperzeption der RüsselkafersChlorophanus.Z Naturforsch l lb: 513–524
He S (1994) Further investigations of direction-selective ganglion cells of the rabbit retina. PhD Thesis, Australian National University
He S, Masland RH (1997) Retinal direction selectivity after targeted laser ablation of starburst amacrine cells. Nature 389: 378–382
He S, Masland RH (1998) ON direction-selective ganglion cells in the rabbit retina: dendritic morphology and pattern of fasciculation. Vis Neurosci 15: 369–375
Ikeda H, Wright MJ (1972) Receptive field organization of `sustained’ and `transient’ retinal ganglion cells which subserve different functional roles. J Physiol (Lond) 227: 769–800
Jensen RJ (1995) Effects of Cat+channel blockers on directional selectivity of rabbit retinal ganglion cells. J Neurophysiol 74: 12–23
Kier CK, Buchsbaum G, Sterling P (1995) How retinal microcircuits scale for ganglion cells of different size. J Neurosci 15: 7673–7683
Kittila CA, Granda AM (1994) Functional morphologies of retinal ganglion cells in the turtle. J Comp Neurol 350: 623–645
Kittila CA, Massey SC (1995) Effect of ON pathway blockade on directional selectivity in the rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 73: 703–712
Kittila CA, Massey SC (1997) Pharmacology of directionally selective ganglion cells in the rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 77: 675–689
Koch C, Poggio T, Torre V (1982) Retinal ganglion cells: a functional interpretation of dendritic morphology. Philos Trans Roy Soc Lond B 298: 227–263
Koch C, Poggio T, Torre V (1983) Nonlinear interactions in a dendritic tree: localization, timing, and role in information processing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 80: 2799–2802
Koch C, Poggio T, Torre V (1986) Computations in the vertebrate retina: gain enhancement, differentiation and motion discrimination. Trends Neurosci 9: 204–211
Kogo N, Rubio DM, Ariel M (1998) Direction tuning of individual retinal inputs to the turtle accessory optic system. J Neurosci 18: 2673–2684
Kolb H, Nelson R (1984) Neural architecture of the cat retina. Prog Retinal Res 3: 21–60
Levick WR (1996) Receptive fields of cat retinal ganglion cells with special reference to the alpha cells. Prog Retinal Eye Res 15: 457–500
Levick WR, Thibos LN (1983) Receptive fields of cat ganglion cells: classification and construction. Prog Retinal Res 2: 267–319
Levick WR, Oyster CW, Takahashi E (1969) Rabbit lateral geniculate nucleus: sharpener of directional information. Science 165: 712–714
Linn DM, Massey SC (1992) GABA inhibits ACh release from the rabbit retina: a direct effect or feedback to bipolar cells? Vis Neurosci 8: 97–106
Linn DM, Blazynski C, Redbum DA, Massey SC (1991) Acetylcholine release from the rabbit retina mediated by kainate receptors. J Neurosci 11: 111–122
MacNeil MA, Masland RH (1998) Extreme diversity among amacrine cells: implications for function. Neuron 20: 971–982
MacNeil MA, Heussy JK, Dacheux RF, Raviola E, Masland RH (1999) The shapes and numbers of amacrine cells: matching of photofilled with Golgi-stained cells in the rabbit retina and comparison with other mammalian species. J Comp Neurol 413: 305–326
Marchiafava PL (1979) The responses of retinal ganglion cells to stationary and moving visual stimuli. Vision Res 19: 1203–1211
Mariani AP (1982) Association amacrine cells could mediate directional selectivity in pigeon retina. Nature 298: 654–655
Masland RH, Ames A (1976) Responses to acetylcholine of ganglion cells in an isolated mammalian retina. J Neurophysiol 39: 1220–1235
Masland RH, Mills JW, Hayden SA (1984) Acetylcholine-synthesizing amacrine cells: identification and selective staining by using radioautography and fluorescent markers. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 223: 79–100
Massey SC, Miller RF (1990) N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors of ganglion cells in rabbit retina. J Neurophysiol 63: 16–30
Massey SC, Mills SL (1996) A calbindin-immunoreactive cone bipolar cell type in the rabbit retina. J Comp Neurol 366: 15–33
Massey SC, Linn DM, Kittila CA, Mirza W (1997) Contributions of GABAAreceptors and GABAc receptors to acetylcholine release and directional selectivity in the rabbit retina. Vis Neurosci 14: 939–948
Meister M, Lagnado L, Baylor DA (1995) Concerted signaling by retinal ganglion cells. Science 270: 1207–1210
Merwine DK, Amthor FR, Grzywacz NM (1995) Interaction between center and surround in rabbit retinal ganglion cells. J Neurophysiol 73: 1547–1567
Miles FA (1972) Centrifugal control of the avian retina. I. Receptive field properties of retinal ganglion cells. Brain Res 48: 65–92
Miles FA (1993) The sensing of rotational and translational optic flow by the primate optokinetic system. In: Miles FA, Wallman J (eds) Visual motion and its role in the stabilization of gaze. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 393–403
Millar TJ, Morgan IG (1987) Cholinergic amacrine cells in the rabbit retina synapse onto other cholinergic amacrine cells. Neurosci Lett 74: 281–285.
Miller RF (1979) The neuronal basis of ganglion-cell receptive-field organization and the physiology of amacrine cells. In: Schmitt FO, Worden FG (eds) The neurosciences: fourth study program. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 227–245
Mills SL, Massey SC (1992) Morphology of bipolar cells labeled by DAPI in the rabbit retina. J Comp Neurol 321: 133–149
Nelson R (1977) Cat cones have rod input: a comparison of the response properties of cones and horizontal cell bodies in the retina of the cat. J Comp Neurol 172: 109–135
Oyster CW (1968) The analysis of image motion by the rabbit retina. J Physiol 199: 613–635
Oyster CW (1990) Neural interactions underlying direction-selectivity in the rabbit retina. In: Blakemore C (ed) Vision: coding and efficiency. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp92–102
Oyster CW, Barlow HB (1967) Direction-selective units in rabbit retina: distribution of preferred directions. Science 155: 841–842
Oyster CW, Takahashi E, Levick WR (1971) Information processing in the rabbit visual system. Doc Ophthalmol 30: 161–204
Oyster CW, Takahashi E, Collewijn H (1972) Direction-selective retinal ganglion cells and control of optokinetic nystagmus in the rabbit. Vision Res 12: 183–193
Oyster CW, Simpson JI, Takahashi ES, Soodak RE (1980) Retinal ganglion cells projecting to the rabbit accessory optic system. J Comp Neurol 190: 49–61
Oyster CW, Amthor FR, Takahashi ES (1993) Dendritic architecture of ON-OFF direction-selective ganglion cells in the rabbit retina. Vision Res 33: 579–608
Panico J, Sterling P (1995) Retinal neurons and vessels are not fractal but space-filling. J Comp Neurol 361: 479–490
Perry VH, Walker M (1980) Amacrine cells, displaced amacrine cells and interplexiform cells in the retina of the rat. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 208: 415–431
Peters BN, Masland RH (1996) Responses to light of starburst amacrine cells. J Neurophysiol 75: 469–480
Poggio T, Torre V (1981) A theory of synaptic interactions. In: Reichardt WE, Poggio T, (eds) Theoretical approaches in neurobiology. MIT Press, Cambridge, pp 28–38
Poznanski RR (1992) Modelling the electrotonic structure of starburst amacrine cells in the rabbit retina: a functional interpretation of dendritic morphology. Bull Math Biol 54: 905–928
Pu ML, Amthor FR (1990) Dendritic morphologies of retinal ganglion cells projecting to the nucleus of the optic tract in the rabbit. J Comp Neurol 302: 657–674
Rademaker GGJ, Ter Braak JWG (1948) On the central mechanism of some optic reactions. Brain 71: 48–76
Raviola G, Raviola E (1967) Light and electron microscopic observations on the inner plexiform layer of the rabbit retina. Am J Anat 120: 403–425
Reichardt W (1961) Autocorrelation, a principle for the evaluation of sensory information by the central nervous system. In: Rosenblith W (ed) Sensory communication. John Wiley, New York, pp 303–317
Rodieck RW (1988) The primate retina.In:Horst HD, Erwin J (eds) Comparative primate biology, Vol 4, neurosciences. Alan R Liss, New York, pp 203–278
Rodieck RW (1998) The first steps in seeing. Sinauer, Sunderland MA
Rosenberg AF, Ariel M (1991) Electrophysiological evidence for a direct projection of direction-sensitive retinal ganglion cells to the turtle’s accessory optic system. J Neurophysiol 65: 1022–1033
Schiller PH, Malpeli JG (1977) Properties and tectal projections of monkey retinal ganglion cells. J Neurophysiol 40: 428–445
Simpson JI (1984) The accessory optic system. Ann Rev Neurosci 7: 13–41
Simpson JI, Soodak RE, Hess R (1979) The accessory optic system and its relation to the vestibulocerebellum. Prog Brain Res 50: 715–724
Simpson JI, Leonard CS, Soodak RE (1988) The accessory optic system of the rabbit. II. Spatial organization of direction selectivity. J Neurophysiol 60: 2055–2072
Smith RD, Grzywacz NM, Borg-Graham Li (1996) Is the input to a GABAergic synapse the sole asymmetry in turtle’s retinal directional selectivity? Vis Neurosci 13: 423–439
Smith RG, Freed MA, Sterling P (1986) Microcircuitry of the dark-adapted cat retina: functional architecture of the rod-cone network. J Neurosci 6: 3505–3517
Soodak RE, Simpson JI (1988) The accessory optic system of the rabbit. I. Basic visual response properties. J Neurophysiol 60: 2037–2054
Tauchi M, Masland RH (1984) The shape and arrangement of the cholinergic neurons in the rabbit retina. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 223: 101–119
Tauchi M, Masland RH (1985) Local order among the dendrites of an amacrine cell population. J Neurosci 5: 2494–2501
Taylor WR, Wässle H (1995) Receptive field properties of starburst cholinergic amacrine cells in the rabbit retina. Eur J Neurosci 7: 2308–2321
Taylor WR, Chen E, Copenhagen DR (1995) Characterization of spontaneous synaptic currents in salamander retinal ganglion cells. J Physiol 486: 207–221
Torre V, Poggio T (1978) A synaptic mechanism possibly underlying directional selectivity to motion. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 202: 409–416.
Vaney DI (1984) `Coronate’ amacrine cells in the rabbit retina have the `starburst’ dendritic morphology. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 220: 501–508
Vaney DI (1990) The mosaic of amacrine cells in the mammalian retina. Prog Retinal Res 9: 49–100
Vaney DI (1991) Many diverse types of retinal neurons show tracer coupling when injected with biocytin or Neurobiotin. Neurosci Lett 125: 187–190
Vaney DI (1994a) Patterns of neuronal coupling in the retina. Prog Retinal Eye Res 13: 301–355
Vaney DI (1994b) Territorial organization of direction-selective ganglion cells in rabbit retina. J Neurosci 14: 6301–6316
Vaney DI, Pow DV (2000) The dendritic architecture of the cholinergic plexus in the rabbit retina: selective labeling by glycine accumulation in the presence of sarcosine. J Comp Neurol 421: 1–13
Vaney DI, Young HM (1988) GABA-like immunoreactivity in cholinergic amacrine cells of the rabbit retina. Brain Res 438: 369–373
Vaney DI, Levick WR, Thibos LN (198la) Rabbit retinal ganglion cells. Receptive field classification and axonal conduction properties. Exp Brain Res 44: 27–33
Vaney DI, Peichl L, Wässle H, Illing RB (1981b) Almost all ganglion cells in the rabbit retina project to the superior colliculus. Brain Res 212: 447–453
Vaney DI, Peichl L, Boycott BB (1988) Neurofibrillar long-range amacrine cells in mammalian retinae. Proc Roy Soc Lond B 235: 203–219
Vaney DI, Collin SP, Young HM (1989) Dendritic relationships between cholinergic amacrine cells and direction-selective retinal ganglion cells. In: Weiler R, Osborne NN (eds) Neurobiology of the inner retina. Springer, Berlin, pp 157–168
Waltman J (1993) Subcortical optokinetic mechanisms. In: Miles FA, Wallman J (eds) Visual motion and its role in the stabilization of gaze. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 321–369
Wässle H, Peichl L, Boycott BB (1981) Dendritic territories of cat retinal ganglion cells. Nature 292: 344–345
Werblin F (1991) Synaptic connections, receptive fields, and patterns of activity in the tiger salamander retina. A simulation of patterns of activity formed at each cellular level from photoreceptors to ganglion cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 32: 459–483
Wong RO (1990) Differential growth and remodelling of ganglion cell dendrites in the postnatal rabbit retina. J Comp Neurol 294: 109–132
Wyatt HJ, Daw NW (1975) Directionally sensitive ganglion cells in the rabbit retina: specificity for stimulus direction, size, and speed. J Neurophysiol 38: 613–626
Wyatt HJ, Daw NW (1976) Specific effects of neurotransmitter antagonists on ganglion cells in rabbit retina. Science 191: 204–205
Yang G, Masland RH (1992) Direct visualization of the dendritic and receptive fields of directionally selective retinal ganglion cells. Science 258: 1949–1952
Yang G, Masland RH (1994) Receptive fields and dendritic structure of directionally selective retinal ganglion cells. J Neurosci 14: 5267–5280
Young HM, Vaney DI (1991) Rod-signal interneurons in the rabbit retina: 1. Rod bipolar cells. J Comp Neurol 310: 139–153
Zhou ZJ, Fain GL (1995) Neurotransmitter receptors of starburst amacrine cells in rabbit retinal slices. J Neurosci 15: 5334–5345
Zhou ZJ, Fain GL, Dowling JE (1993) The excitatory and inhibitory amino acid receptors on horizontal cells isolated from the white perch retina. J Neurophysiol 70: 8–19
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2001 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Vaney, D.I., He, S., Taylor, W.R., Levick, W.R. (2001). Direction-Selective Ganglion Cells in the Retina. In: Zanker, J.M., Zeil, J. (eds) Motion Vision. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56550-2_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56550-2_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-62979-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-56550-2
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive