Abstract
Omega-3 fatty acids represent essential nutrients for animals and humans. The most common plant-derived precursor for the bioactive long-chain omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). ALA is the only omega-3 fatty acid available in vegetable oils that are produced in substantial volumes. However, conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is inefficient in humans due to a metabolic bottleneck represented by the Δ6-desaturase enzyme that converts ALA to stearidonic acid (SDA), the first intermediate in the metabolic pathway that converts ALA to EPA and DHA. SDA is present in small amounts in the oil of some herbs such as borage oil or hemp oil; however, these oils are not available in large quantities. Compared to the main vegetable oils that contain ALA, a more efficient source for long-chain omega-3 fatty acids is provided by marine cold water fish that contain substantial amounts of EPA and DHA in membrane and storage lipids. These fish do not have the metabolic capacity to synthesize omega-3 fatty acids from central intermediates of their metabolism themselves. Instead they acquire EPA and DHA through their food chain that is founded on marine algae as primary producers. Unfortunately the human consumption of fish is limited by an increasingly finite supply of marine stocks, by encumbrance of some marine fish with environmental toxins, and by dietary preferences in the Western cultures that tend to avoid fish as food source. This chapter reviews the discovery and relevance of omega-3 fatty acids as an essential human nutrient, the limitations of the marine ecosystem in providing the bioactive omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA in sufficient quantities for human consumption, and the development of SDA soybeans that are soybeans with substantially improved omega-3 profile. SDA soybeans contain 20 % of their total fatty acids as SDA. As such, they represent a much more efficient source of omega-3 fatty acids than traditional vegetable oils that contain ALA only. SDA soybean oil has been shown to perform similar as conventional soybean when incorporated into human foods. In contrast to specialty oils, production of SDA soybean oil is more economical and can easily be ramped up to produce large quantities. In contrast to marine omega-3 sources SDA soybean oil is free of environmental toxins and not tied to the volume limitations of the marine ecosystem. This positions SDA soybean oil as an environmentally friendly sustainable source of essential omega-3 fatty acids for the increasing demand of a growing human population.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aarsetoey H, Aarsetoey R, Lindner T, Staines H, Harris WS, Nilsen DW (2011) Low levels of the omega-3 index are associated with sudden cardiac arrest and remain stable in survivors in the subacute phase. Lipids 46:151–161
Agren JJ, Hanninen O, Laitinen M, Seppanen K, Bernhardt I, Fogelholm L et al (1988) Boreal freshwater fish diet modifies the plasma lipids and prostanoids and membrane fatty acids in man. Lipids 23:924–929
Agren JJ, Pekkarinen H, Litmanen H, Hanninen O (1991) Fish diet and physical fitness in relation to membrane and serum lipids, prostanoid metabolism and platelet aggregation in female students. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 63:393–398
Aliani M, Ryland D, Pierce GN (2011) Effect of flax addition on the flavor profile of muffins and snack bars. Food Res Int 44:2489–2496
Aliani M, Ryaland D, Pierce GN (2012) Effect of flax addition on the flavor profile and acceptability of bagels. J Food Sci 71:S62–S70
Alvarez B, Ruiz C, Chacon P, Alvarez-Sabin J, Matas M (2004) Serum values of metalloproteinase-2 and metalloproteinase-9 as related to unstable plaque and inflammatory cells in patients with greater than 70% carotid artery stenosis. J Vasc 40:469–475
American Dietetics Association (2007) Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: dietary fatty acids. J Am Diet Assoc 107:1599–1611
Arterburn LM, Hall EB, Oken H (2006) Distribution, interconversion, and dose response of n-3 fatty acids in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1467S–1476S
Astorg P, Arnault N, Czernichow S, Noisette N, Galan P, Hercberg S (2004) Dietary intakes and food sources of n-6 and n-3 PUFA in French adult men and women. Lipids 39:527–535
Balk EM, Lichtenstein AH, Chung M, Kupelnick B, Chew P, Lau J (2006) Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on serum markers of cardiovascular disease risk: a systematic review. Atherosclerosis 189:19–30
Beitz J, Mest HJ, Forster W (1981) Influence of linseed oil diet on the pattern of serum phospholipids in man. Acta Biol Med Ger 40:K31–K35
Bell JG, McGhee F, Campbell PJ, Sargent JR (2003) Rapeseed oil as an alternative to marine fish oil in diets of post-smolt Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): changes in flesh fatty acid composition and effectiveness of subsequent fish oil “wash out”. Aquaculture 218:515–528
Bharadwaj AS, Hart SD, Brown BJ, Li Y, Watkins BA, Brown PB (2010) Dietary source of stearidonic acid promotes higher muscle DHA concentrations than linolenic acid in hybrid striped bass. Lipids 45:21–27
Bimbo AP (2008) Alaska seafood byproducts: update on potential products, markets and competing products. In: Bechtel PJ, Smiley S (eds) A sustainable future: fish processing byproducts. Alaska Sea Grant University of Alaska, Fairbanks, pp 9–25
Blonk MC, Bilo HJ, Nauta JJ, Popp-Snijders C, Mulder C, Donker AJ (1990) Dose-response effects of fish-oil supplementation in healthy volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 52:120–127
Brenna JT (2002) Efficiency of conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to long chain n-3 fatty acids in man. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 5:127–132
Brenna JT, Salem N Jr, Sinclair AJ, Cunnane SC (2009) alpha-Linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 80:85–91
Breslow JL (2006) n-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1477S–1482S
Brunner EJ, Jones PJ, Friel S, Bartley M (2009) Fish, human health and marine ecosystem health: policies in collision. Int J Epidemiol 38:93–100
Buckley R, Shewring B, Turner R, Yaqoob P, Minihane AM (2004) Circulating triacylglycerol and apoE levels in response to EPA and docosahexaenoic acid supplementation in adult human subjects. Br J Nutr 92:477–483
Burdge GC, Wootton SA (2002) Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in young women. Br J Nutr 88:411–420
Burdge GC, Jones AE, Wootton SA (2002) Eicosapentaenoic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal products of alpha-linolenic acid metabolism in young men*. Br J Nutr 88:355–363
Burdge GC, Finnegan YE, Minihane AM, Williams CM, Wootton SA (2003) Effect of altered dietary n-3 fatty acid intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conversion of [13C]alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and partitioning towards beta-oxidation in older men. Br J Nutr 90:311–321
Burr G, Burr M (1929) A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet. J Biol Chem 82:345–367
Burr G, Burr M (1930) The nature and role of the fatty acids essential in nutrition. J Biol Chem 86:587–621
Calder PC (2006) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation, and inflammatory diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1505S–1519S
Calder PC (2010) The American Heart Association advisory on n-6 fatty acids: evidence based or biased evidence? Br J Nutr 104:1575–1576
Cawood AL, Ding R, Napper FL, Young RH, Williams JA, Ward MJ et al (2010) Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from highly concentrated n-3 fatty acid ethyl esters is incorporated into advanced atherosclerotic plaques and higher plaque EPA is associated with decreased plaque inflammation and increased stability. Atherosclerosis 212:252–259
Cerbone AM, Cirillo F, Coppola A, Rise P, Stragliotto E, Galli C et al (1999) Persistent impairment of platelet aggregation following cessation of a short-course dietary supplementation of moderate amounts of N-3 fatty acid ethyl esters. Thromb Haemost 82:128–133
Christensen JH (2003) n-3 fatty acids and the risk of sudden cardiac death. Emphasis on heart rate variability. Dan Med Bull 50:347–367
Clemente T, Xing A, Ye X, Sato S, Schweiger B, Kinney A (2003) Production of gamma linolenic acid in seeds of transgenic soybean. In: Vasil LK (ed) Plant biotechonology 2002 and Beyond. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 421–424
Cunnane SC, Ganguli S, Menard C, Liede AC, Hamadeh MJ, Chen ZY et al (1993) High alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum): some nutritional properties in humans. Br J Nutr 69:443–453
Cuthbertson WF (1976) Essential fatty acid requirements in infancy. Am J Clin Nutr 29:559–568
De Silva SS, Francis DS, Tacon AGJ (2011) From fish oil replacement and alternative lipid sources in aquaculture feeds. In: Turchini GM, Ng WK, Tocher DR (eds) Fish oils in aquaculture in retrospect. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 1–20
Decker EA, Akoh CC, Wilkes RS (2012) Incorporation of (n-3) fatty acids in foods: challenges and opportunities. J Nutr 142:610S–613S
Driss F, Vericel E, Lagarde M, Dechavanne M, Darcet P (1984) Inhibition of platelet aggregation and thromboxane synthesis after intake of small amount of icosapentaenoic acid. Thromb Res 36:389–396
Duarte CM, Homer M, Olsen Y, Soto D, Marba N, Guiu J, Black K, Karakassis I (2009) Will the oceans feed humanity? Bioscience 59:967–976
Eckert H, LaVallee B, Schweiger BJ, Kinney AJ, Cahoon AB, Clemente T (2006) Co-expression of the borage Δ6 desaturase and the Arabidopsis Δ15 desaturase results in high accumulation of stearidonic acid in the seeds of transgenic soybean. Planta 224(5):1050–1057
Engler MM, Engler MB (2006) Omega-3 fatty acids: role in cardiovascular health and disease. J Cardiovasc Nurs 21:17–24, quiz
Engstrom K, Luostarinen R, Saldeen T (1996) Whole blood production of thromboxane, prostacyclin and leukotriene B4 after dietary fish oil supplementation in man: effect of vitamin E. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 54:419–425
Engstrom K, Wallin R, Saldeen T (2003) Effects of Scandinavian caviar paste enriched with a stable fish oil on plasma phospholipid fatty acids and lipid peroxidation. Eur J Clin Nutr 57:1052–1059
Environmental Protection Agency/Food and Drug Adminsitration (2004) What you need to know about mercury in fish and shellfish: 2004 EPA and FDA advice For: women who might become pregnant; women who are pregnant; nursing mothers; young children. http://www.fda.gov/food/foodsafety/product-specificinfomation/seafood/foodbornepathogenscontaminants/methylmercury/ucm115662.htm. Accessed 12 November 2012
Ezaki O, Takahashi M, Shigematsu T, Shimamura K, Kimura J, Ezaki H et al (1999) Long-term effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid from perilla oil on serum fatty acids composition and on the risk factors of coronary heart disease in Japanese elderly subjects. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 45:759–772
Farzaneh-Far R, Harris WS, Garg S, Na B, Whooley MA (2009) Inverse association of erythrocyte n-3 fatty acid levels with inflammatory biomarkers in patients with stable coronary artery disease: the heart and soul study. Atherosclerosis 205:538–543
Ferrucci L, Cherubini A, Bandinelli S, Bartali B, Corsi A, Lauretani F et al (2006) Relationship of plasma polyunsaturated fatty acids to circulating inflammatory markers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:439–446
Finnegan YE, Minihane AM, Leigh-Firbank EC, Kew S, Meijer GW, Muggli R et al (2003) Plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 77:783–795
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2010) The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp 1–197
Food and Nutrition Board IoM (2005) Dietary reference intakes: energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids, Parts 1 and 2. National Academies Press, Washington, DC. Available at The National Academic Press http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=R1
Fountoulaki D, Vasilaki A, Hurtado R, Grigorakis K, Karacostas I, Nengas I, Rigos G, Kotzamanis Y, Venou B, Alexis MN (2009) Fish oil substitution by vegetable oils in commercial diets for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L); effects on growth performance, flesh quality and fillet fatty acid profile. Aquaculture 288:317–326
Fraeye I, Bruneel C, Lemahiu C, Buyse J, Miulaert K, Foubert I (2012) Dietary enrichment of eggs with omega-3 fatty acids: a review. Food Res Int 48:961–969
Frankel EN (2005) Chapter 8: Control of oxidation. In: Frankel EN (ed) Lipid oxidation, 2nd edn. The Oily Press, Bridgewater, pp 187–208
Froman B, Duong C, Listello J (2009) Soybean plant and seed corresponding to transgenic event MON87769 and methods for detection thereof. PCT Int Appl WO 2009/102873 A1
Gebauer SK, Psota TL, Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM (2006) n-3 fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 83:1526S–1535S
George C, Rogan GJ (2010) Petition for determination of nonregulated status for soybean MON 87769. USDA/APHIS Petition #09-183-01p. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/brs/aphisdocs/09_18301p.pdf
Ghafoorunissa, Vani A, Laxmi R, Sesikeran B (2002) Effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid from blended oils on biochemical indices of coronary heart disease in Indians. Lipids 37:1077–1086
Gibney MJ, Hunter B (1993) The effects of short- and long-term supplementation with fish oil on the incorporation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids into cells of the immune system in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Nutr 47:255–259
Gomes T, Delcuratolo D, Pardiso VM, Summo C, Caponio F (2011) Pro-oxidant activity of oxidized triglycerols in olive oil and comparison with pro-oxidant action of polar triacylglycerol oligopolymers. LWT Food Sci Technol 112:741–749
Gray DA, Payne G, McClements DJ, Decker EA, Lad M (2010) Oxidative stability of Echium plantagineum seed oil bodies. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 112:741–749
Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen JB, Nordoy A (1997) Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 66:649–659
Gronn M, Gorbitz C, Christensen E, Levorsen A, Ose L, Hagve TA et al (1991) Dietary n-6 fatty acids inhibit the incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty acids in thrombocyte and serum phospholipids in humans: a controlled dietetic study. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 51:255–263
Groot C, Margolis L (1991) Pacific Salmon life histories. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, pp 1–564
Gunstone FD (2006) Minor specialty oils. In: Shahidi F (ed) Nutraceutical and specialty lipids and their co-products. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 91–126
Hagve TA, Lie O, Gronn M (1993) The effect of dietary N-3 fatty acids on osmotic fragility and membrane fluidity of human erythrocytes. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 215:75–84
Harchaoui KE, Visser ME, Kastelein JJ, Stroes ES, Dallinga-Thie GM (2009) Triglycerides and cardiovascular risk. Curr Cardiol Rev 5:216–222
Hardy RW, Barrows FT (2002) Diet formulation and manufacturing. In: Halver JE, Hardy RW (eds) Fish nutrition, 3rd edn. Academic, New York, pp 505–600
Hardy RW, King IB (1989) Variation in n-3 fatty acid content of fresh and frozen Salmon. Omega-3 News: 1–4
Hardy RW, Shephard J (2009) Sustainable marine resources for organic feeds. World Aquacult 40:59–64
Harris WS (2008) The omega-3 index as a risk factor for coronary heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr 87:1997S–2002S
Harris WS (2010) The omega-3 index: clinical utility for therapeutic intervention. Curr Cardiol Rep 12:503–508
Harris WS, Von SC (2004) The omega-3 index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Prev Med 39:212–220
Harris WS, Dirienzo MA, Sands SA, George C, Jones PG, Eapen AK (2007) Stearidonic acid increases the red blood cell and heart eicosapentaenoic acid content in dogs. Lipids 42:325–333
Harris WS, Kris-Etherton PM, Harris KA (2008a) Intakes of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid associated with reduced risk for death from coronary heart disease in healthy adults. Curr Atheroscler Rep 10:503–509
Harris WS, Lemke SL, Hansen SN, Goldstein DA, Dirienzo MA, Su H, Nemeth MA, Taylor ML, Ahmed G, George C (2008b) Stearidonic acid-enriched soybean oil increased the omega-3 index, an emerging cardiovascular risk marker. Lipids 43(9):805–811
Higgs DA, Macdonald JS, Levings CD, Dosanjh BS (1995) Nutrition and feeding habits in relation to life history. In: Groot C, Margolis L, Clark WC (eds) Physiological ecology of pacific salmon. UBC Press, Vancouver, BC, pp 159–315
Hodge J, Sanders K, Sinclair AJ (1993) Differential utilization of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in human plasma. Lipids 28:525–531
Holman RT, Johnson SB, Hatch TF (1982) A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am J Clin Nutr 35:617–623
Howe P, Meyer B, Record S, Baghurst K (2006) Dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: contribution of meat sources. Nutrition 22:47–53
Hunter JE (1990) n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oils. Am J Clin Nutr 51:809–814
Izquierdo MS, Montero D, Robiana L, Cabellero MJ, Rosenlund G, Gines R (2005) Alterations in fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fed vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feeding. Aqauculture 250:431–444
James MJ, Gibson RA, D’Angelo M, Neumann MA, Cleland LG (1993) Simple relationships exist between dietary linoleate and the n-6 fatty acids of human neutrophils and plasma. Am J Clin Nutr 58:497–500
James MJ, Ursin VM, Cleland LG (2003) Metabolism of stearidonic acid in human subjects: comparison with the metabolism of other n-3 fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 77:1140–1145
Jensen CL, Maude M, Anderson RE, Heird WC (2000) Effect of docosahexaenoic acid supplementation of lactating women on the fatty acid composition of breast milk lipids and maternal and infant plasma phospholipids. Am J Clin Nutr 71:292S–299S
Jobling M (2003) Do changes in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L, fillet fatty acids following a dietary switch represent wash-out or dilution? Test of a dilution model and its application. Aquac Res 34:1215–1221
Kang JX, Leaf A (2000) Prevention of fatal cardiac arrhythmias by polyunsaturated fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr 71:202S–207S
Kannel WB, Wilson P, Blair SN (1985) Epidemiological assessment of the role of physical activity and fitness in development of cardiovascular disease. Am Heart J 109:876–885
Katan MB, Deslypere JP, Van Birgelen AP, Penders M, Zegwaard M (1997) Kinetics of the incorporation of dietary fatty acids into serum cholesteryl esters, erythrocyte membranes, and adipose tissue: an 18-month controlled study. J Lipid Res 38:2012–2022
Kelley DS, Nelson GJ, Love JE, Branch LB, Taylor PC, Schmidt PC et al (1993) Dietary alpha-linolenic acid alters tissue fatty acid composition, but not blood lipids, lipoproteins or coagulation status in humans. Lipids 28:533–537
Kelly ML, Berry JR, Dwyer DA, Griinari JM, Chouinard PY, Van Amburgh ME et al (1998) Dietary fatty acid sources affect conjugated linoleic acid concentrations in milk from lactating dairy cows. J Nutr 128:881–885
Kew S, Mesa MD, Tricon S, Buckley R, Minihane AM, Yaqoob P (2004) Effects of oils rich in eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on immune cell composition and function in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 79:674–681
Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, Appel LJ (2002) Fish consumption, fish oil, omega-3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 106:2747–2757
Krkosek M, Ford JS, Morton A, Lele S, Myers RA, Lewis MA (2007) Declining wild salmon populations in relation to parasites from farm salmon. Science 318:1772–1775
Krul ES, Lemke SL, Mukherjea R, Taylor ML, Goldstein DA, Su H, Liu P, Lawless A, Harris WS, Maki KC (2012) Effects of duration of treatment and dosage of eicosapentaenoic acid and stearidonic acid on red blood cell eicosapentaenoic acid content. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 86:51–59
Laidlaw M, Holub BJ (2003) Effects of supplementation with fish oil-derived n-3 fatty acids and gamma-linolenic acid on circulating plasma lipids and fatty acid profiles in women. Am J Clin Nutr 77:37–42
Landete JM (2012) Plant and mammalian lignans; a review of source, intake, metabolism, intestinal bacteria and health. Food Res Int 46:410–424
Layne KS, Goh YK, Jumpsen JA, Ryan EA, Chow P, Clandinin MT (1996) Normal subjects consuming physiological levels of 18:3(n-3) and 20:5(n-3) from flaxseed or fish oils have characteristic differences in plasma lipid and lipoprotein fatty acid levels. J Nutr 126:2130–2140
Leaf A, Kang JX, Xiao YF, Billman GE (2003a) Clinical prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and mechanism of prevention of arrhythmias by n-3 fish oils. Circulation 107:2646–2652
Leaf A, Xiao YF, Kang JX, Billman GE (2003b) Prevention of sudden cardiac death by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pharmacol Ther 98:355–77
Lemke SL, Vicini JL, Su H, Goldstein DA, Nemeth MA, Krul ES et al (2010) Dietary intake of stearidonic acid-enriched soybean oil increases the omega-3 index: randomized, double-blind clinical study of efficacy and safety. Am J Clin Nutr 92:766–775
Leonard AE, Pereira SL, Sprecher H, Huang YS (2004) Elongation of long-chain fatty acids. Prog Lipid Res 43:36–54
Li D, Sinclair A, Wilson A, Nakkote S, Kelly F, Abedin L et al (1999) Effect of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on thrombotic risk factors in vegetarian men. Am J Clin Nutr 69:872–882
Libby P (2008a) Role of inflammation in atherosclerosis associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Med 121:S21–S31
Libby P (2008b) The molecular mechanisms of the thrombotic complications of atherosclerosis. J Intern Med 263:517–527
Libby P, Theroux P (2005) Pathophysiology of coronary artery disease. Circulation 111:3481–3488
Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA et al (2006) Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation 114:82–96
Linseisen J, Schulze MB, Saadatian-Elahi M, Kroke A, Miller AB, Boeing H (2003) Quantity and quality of dietary fat, carbohydrate, and fiber intake in the German EPIC cohorts. Ann Nutr Metab 47:37–46
Mantzioris E, James MJ, Gibson RA, Cleland LG (1994) Dietary substitution with an alpha-linolenic acid-rich vegetable oil increases eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in tissues. Am J Clin Nutr 59:1304–1309
Marty GD, Saksida SM, Quinn TJ (2010) Relationship of farm salmon, sea lice, and wild salmon populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:22599–22604
Massaro M, Scoditti E, Carluccio MA, Campana MC, De CR (2010) Omega-3 fatty acids, inflammation and angiogenesis: basic mechanisms behind the cardioprotective effects of fish and fish oils. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand) 56:59–82
McIntyre PB, Jones LE, Flecker AS, Vanni MJ (2007) Fish extinctions alter nutrient recycling in tropical freshwaters. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:4461–4466
Mest HJ, Beitz J, Heinroth I, Block HU, Forster W (1983) The influence of linseed oil diet on fatty acid pattern in phospholipids and thromboxane formation in platelets in man. Klin Wochenschr 61:187–191
Metz JG, Roessler P, Facciotti D, Levering C, Dittrich F, Lassner M, Valentine R, Lardizabal K, Domergue F, Yamada A, Yazawa K, Knauf V, Browse J (2001) Production of polyunsaturated fatty acids by polyketide synthases in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Science 293:290–293
Metz JG, Flatt JH, Kuner J (2006) The genes for the enzymes of the polyunsaturated fatty acid polyketide synthase of Schizochytrium and their use in the manufacture of polyunsaturated fatty acids. PCT Int Appl WO 2006135866
Miles EA, Banerjee T, Calder PC (2004) The influence of different combinations of gamma-linolenic, stearidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids on the fatty acid composition of blood lipids and mononuclear cells in human volunteers. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 70:529–538
Miller MR, Bridle AR, Nichols PDCCG (2008) Increased elongase and desaturase gene expression with stearidonic acid-enriched diet does not enhance long-chain (n-3) content of seawater Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L). J Nutr 138:2179–2185
Mori TA, Bao DQ, Burke V, Puddey IB, Beilin LJ (1999) Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Hypertension 34:253–260
Mori TA, Burke V, Puddey IB, Watts GF, O’Neal DN, Best JD et al (2000) Purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids have differential effects on serum lipids and lipoproteins, LDL particle size, glucose, and insulin in mildly hyperlipidemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1085–1094
Mozaffarian D, Psaty BM, Rimm EB, Lemaitre RN, Burke GL, Lyles MF et al (2004) Fish intake and risk of incident atrial fibrillation. Circulation 110:368–373
Naylor RL, Goldberg RJ, Primavera JH, Kautsky N, Beveridge MCM, Clay J, Folke C, Lubchenco J, Mooney H, Troell M (2000) Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies. Nature 405:1017–1024
Naylor RL, Hardy RW, Bureau D, Chiu A, Elliott M, Farrell A, Forster I, Gatlin D, Goldberg R, Hua K, Nichols P (2009) Feeding aquaculture in an era of finite resources. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:15103–15110
NRC (2011) Nutrient requirements of fish and shrimp. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
Oliveira ACM, Stone DAJ, Plante S, Smiley S, Bechtel PJ, Hardy RW (2008) Fish oils from Alaska seafood processing by-product: an un-exploited sustainable resource for aquaculture. World Aquacult 51:50–69
Oozeki Y (2000) Mechanisms causing the variability of the Japanese sardine population: achievements of the Bio-Cosmos Project in Japan. Institute of Ocean Sciences, Sidney, BC, Canada. p 81
Otten JJ, Pitzi Hellwig J, Meyers LD (2006) Dietary DRI reference intakes: the essential guide to nutrient requirements. The National Academies Press: Washington, DC. Available at The National Academic Press http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11537&page=R3
Ozola S, Straumite E, Kruma Z, Galoburda R (2010) Sensory evaluation of flax oil flavoured by cinnamon or caraway oils. In: Fito P, Toldra F (eds) Proceedings of international conference on food innovation “FoodInnova 2010”, Universitat Politecnica de Valencia, Valencia, Spain, 25–29 Oct 2010, 4 p. [Electronic resource]. – 1 CD
Palozza P, Sgarlata E, Luberto C, Piccioni E, Anti M, Marra G et al (1996) n-3 fatty acids induce oxidative modifications in human erythrocytes depending on dose and duration of dietary supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr 64:297–304
Paulsrud JR, Pensler L, Whitten CF, Stewart S, Holman RT (1972) Essential fatty acid deficiency in infants induced by fat-free intravenous feeding. Am J Clin Nutr 25:897–904
Plourde M, Chouinard-Watkins R, Vandal M, Zhang Y, Lawrence P, Brenna JT et al (2011) Plasma incorporation, apparent retroconversion and beta-oxidation of 13C-docosahexaenoic acid in the elderly. Nutr Metab (Lond) 8:5
Polar Foods 2012. http://www.polarfoods.com/
Racine RA, Deckelbaum RJ (2007) Sources of the very-long-chain unsaturated omega-3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 10:123–128
Rambjor GS, Walen AI, Windsor SL, Harris WS (1996) Eicosapentaenoic acid is primarily responsible for hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in humans. Lipids 31(Suppl):S45–S49
Rosenlund G, Corraze G, Izquierdo MS, Torstensen B (2010) The effects of fish oil replacement on nutritional and organoleptic qualities of farmed fish. In: Turchini GM, Ng WK, Tocher DR (eds) Fish oil replacement and alternative lipid sources in aquaculture feeds. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 487–522
Ruiz-Lopez N, Sayanova O, Napier JA, Haslam RP (2012) Metabolic engineering of the omega-3 long chain polyunsatureated fatty acid biosynthetic pathway into transgenic plants. J Exp Bot 63(7):2397–2410
Sanders TA, Hinds A (1992) The influence of a fish oil high in docosahexaenoic acid on plasma lipoprotein and vitamin E concentrations and haemostatic function in healthy male volunteers. Br J Nutr 68:163–173
Sands SA, Reid KJ, Windsor SL, Harris WS (2005) The impact of age, body mass index, and fish intake on the EPA and DHA content of human erythrocytes. Lipids 40:343–347
Seppanen-Laakso T, Vanhanen H, Laakso I, Kohtamaki H, Viikari J (1992) Replacement of butter on bread by rapeseed oil and rapeseed oil-containing margarine: effects on plasma fatty acid composition and serum cholesterol. Br J Nutr 68:639–654
Seppanen-Laakso T, Vanhanen H, Laakso I, Kohtamaki H, Viikari J (1993) Replacement of margarine on bread by rapeseed and olive oils: effects on plasma fatty acid composition and serum cholesterol. Ann Nutr Metab 37:161–174
Sidwell VD, Foncannon PR, Moore NS, Bonnett JC (1974) Composition of the edible portions of raw (fresh or frozen) crustaceans, finfish and mollusks. I Protein, fat, moisture, ash, carbohydrate, energy value and cholesterol. Mar Fish Rev 36(3):21–35
Sinclair AJ, Mann NJ (1996) Short-term diets rich in arachidonic acid influence plasma phospholipid polyunsaturated fatty acid levels and prostacyclin and thromboxane production in humans. J Nutr 126(Suppl):1110S–1114S
Sinclair AJ, O’Dea K, Dunstan G, Ireland PD, Niall M (1987) Effects on plasma lipids and fatty acid composition of very low fat diets enriched with fish or kangaroo meat. Lipids 22:523–529
Singer P, Berger I, Wirth M, Godicke W, Jaeger W, Voigt S (1986) Slow desaturation and elongation of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids as a rationale of eicosapentaenoic acid-rich diet to lower blood pressure and serum lipids in normal, hypertensive and hyperlipemic subjects. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 24:173–193
Singh KK, Mridula D, Rehal J, Barnwal P (2011) Flaxseed: a potential source of food, feed and fiber. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 51:210–222
Sprecher H (1999) An update on the pathways of polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2:135–138
Stark KD, Park EJ, Maines VA, Holub BJ (2000) Effect of a fish-oil concentrate on serum lipids in postmenopausal women receiving and not receiving hormone replacement therapy in a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Am J Clin Nutr 72:389–394
Steinberg D, Witztum JL (2010) Oxidized low-density lipoprotein and atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 30:2311–2316
Stone DAJ, Oliveira ACM, Ross CF, Plante S, Smiley S, Bechtel PJ, Hardy RW (2011) The effects of phase-feeding rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) with canola oil and Alaskan pollock oil on fillet fatty acid composition and sensory attributes. Aquacult Nutr 17:e521–e529
Surette ME, Edens M, Chilton FH, Tramposch KM (2004) Dietary echium oil increases plasma and neutrophil long-chain (n-3) fatty acids and lowers serum triacylglycerols in hypertriglyceridemic humans. J Nutr 134:1406–1411
Tacon AGJ, Metian M (2008) Global overview on the use of fish meal and fish oil in industrially compounded aquafeeds: trends and future prospects. Aquaculture 285:146–158
Taylor BW, Flecker AS, Hall RO Jr (2006) Loss of a harvested fish species disrupts carbon flow in a diverse tropical river. Science 313:833–836
Thies F, Nebe-von-Caron G, Powell JR, Yaqoob P, Newsholme EA, Calder PC (2001) Dietary supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid, but not with other long-chain n-3 or n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, decreases natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects aged >55 y. Am J Clin Nutr 73:539–548
Tocher DR (2003) Lipid metabolism in teleost fishes. Rev Fish Sci 12:107–184
Tocher DR, Francis DS, Coupland K (2010) n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid fich vegetable oils and blends. In: Turchini GM, Ng WK, Tocher DR (eds) Fish oil replacement and alternative lipid sources in aquaculture feeds. CRC, Boca Raton, FL, pp 209–244
United States Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services. (2010) Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Deitary Guidelines for Americans. Available from http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DGAs2010-DGACReport.htm
Ursin VM (2003) Modification of plant lipids for human health: development of functional land-based omega-3 fatty acids. J Nutr 133:4271–4274
Ursin V, Froman B, Gonzales J, Screen SE, Dong F, La Roasa TJ (2005) Fatty acid desaturases from Primula. PCT Int Appl WO 2005/021761 A1
Ursin VM, Voelker T, Froman B (2006) Fatty acid desaturases from fungi. PCT Int Appl WO 2006/0156435 A1
Valsta LM, Salminen I, Aro A, Mutanen M (1996) Alpha-linolenic acid in rapeseed oil partly compensates for the effect of fish restriction on plasma long chain n-3 fatty acids. Eur J Clin Nutr 50:229–235
Vazquez L, Kleiner L, Akoh CC (2012) Concentration of stearidonic acid in free fatty acids form from modified soybean oil by selective esterification with dodecanol. J Am Oil Chem Soc 89:1655–1662
Vidgren HM, Agren JJ, Schwab U, Rissanen T, Hanninen O, Uusitupa MI (1997) Incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into plasma lipid fractions, and erythrocyte membranes and platelets during dietary supplementation with fish, fish oil, and docosahexaenoic acid-rich oil among healthy young men. Lipids 32:697–705
Voelker T, Wilkes RS (2011) Vistive Gold and Soymega: a one-two punch for trait-enhanced oils. Inform 22(10):638–664
Vognild E, Elvevoll EO, Brox J, Olsen RL, Barstad H, Aursand M et al (1998) Effects of dietary marine oils and olive oil on fatty acid composition, platelet membrane fluidity, platelet responses, and serum lipids in healthy humans. Lipids 33:427–436
Von SC, Fischer S, Weber PC (1985) Long-term effects of dietary marine omega-3 fatty acids upon plasma and cellular lipids, platelet function, and eicosanoid formation in humans. J Clin Invest 76:1626–1631
Voss A, Reinhart M, Sankarappa S, Sprecher H (1991) The metabolism of 7,10,13,16,19-docosapentaenoic acid to 4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid in rat liver is independent of a 4-desaturase. J Biol Chem 266:19995–20000
Wallace FA, Miles EA, Calder PC (2003) Comparison of the effects of linseed oil and different doses of fish oil on mononuclear cell function in healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr 89:679–689
Wensing AG, Mensink RP, Hornstra G (1999) Effects of dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin on platelet aggregation in healthy elderly subjects. Br J Nutr 82:183–191
Whelan J (2009) Dietary stearidonic acid is a long chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid with potential health benefits. J Nutr 139:5–10
Whelan J, McEntee MF (2004) Dietary (n-6) PUFA and intestinal tumorigenesis. J Nutr 134:3421S–3426S
Whelan J, Rust C (2006) Innovative dietary sources of n-3 fatty acids. Annu Rev Nutr 26:75–103
Whelan J, Jahns L, Kavanagh K (2009) Docosahexaenoic acid: measurements in food and dietary exposure. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 81:133–136
Whittinghill J, Welsby D (2010) Use of SDA soybean oil in bakery applications. Lipid Technol 22:203–205
Wirth M, Steffens W, Meiske JC, Steinberg C (1997) Signficance of docosahexaenoic acid for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larvae. Eur J Lipid Sci Technol 99:251–253
Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, Matsuzawa Y, Saito Y, Ishikawa Y et al (2007) Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet 369:1090–1098
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Whelan, J., Hardy, R., Wilkes, R.S., Valentin, H.E. (2014). Sustainable Production of Omega-3 Fatty Acids. In: Songstad, D., Hatfield, J., Tomes, D. (eds) Convergence of Food Security, Energy Security and Sustainable Agriculture. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, vol 67. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55262-5_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-55262-5_7
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-55261-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-55262-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)