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Evidence for Black Holes

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Book cover Introduction to Black Hole Astrophysics

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Physics ((LNP,volume 876))

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Abstract

The main astrophysical manifestations of black holes are discussed. This includes an account of X-ray binaries and microquasars, active galactic nuclei, gamma-ray bursts, and ultra-luminous X-ray sources. Evidence for the existence of black holes in these sources is reviewed. Recent observational findings on stellar-mass, intermediate-mass, and supermassive black holes are presented and open observational challenges are described.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    We shall not deal with neutron star XRBs here. See for example Migliari and Fender (2006), also Migliari et al. (2011) for a comprehensive analysis of the differences and similarities between neutron star and black hole XRBs.

  2. 2.

    Intending to extend it to AGN, a modified version of Eq. (6.1) that includes the mass of the black hole was introduced by Merloni et al. (2003) and Falcke et al. (2004). Its validity is not definitely established.

  3. 3.

    A few radio galaxies, Seyfert galaxies, and other AGN have been detected by Fermi as well.

  4. 4.

    EeV stands for “exa electron volt”; 1 EeV=1018 eV.

  5. 5.

    But Auger and HiRes disagree on the composition of cosmic rays.

  6. 6.

    We only detect the gamma-ray burst (i.e. the prompt emission) when the jet is pointing to us. If the jet axis is slightly shifted from the line of sight, “orphan” afterglow emission should be detectable, i.e. radio and optical emission without a preceding gamma-ray burst.

  7. 7.

    This process injects electron-positron pairs, \(\bar{\nu}+\nu\rightarrow e^{+} + e^{-}\).

  8. 8.

    Approximately by a factor \(\theta_{\mathrm{jet}}^{2}/2\), where θ jet is the opening angle of the jet.

  9. 9.

    For simplicity, throughout this chapter we shall use the expression “black hole(s)” implying “black hole candidate(s)”.

  10. 10.

    The orbital period is chosen as a variable because in most systems the accretion rate is expected to be determined by its value. Black holes and neutron star binaries with similar P orb should have similar accretion rates (in Eddington units), allowing proper comparison. See the discussion in Narayan et al. (2002).

  11. 11.

    These are the so-called “Z” sources. See, however, Kuulkers et al. (1997) and Lin et al. (2009).

  12. 12.

    Here we refer to the outbursts described in Sect. 6.2.1, triggered by an increase in the accretion rate.

  13. 13.

    Gravastars are discussed in Sect. 7.7.

  14. 14.

    The discovery of star S0-102 with a period of only 11.5 yr has been recently reported by Meyer et al. (2012). S0-102 has also been tracked along the full orbit.

  15. 15.

    At 8 kpc, 0.1 arcsec corresponds to ∼1.2×1016 cm.

  16. 16.

    The position of Sgr A* in the near infrared is much more difficult to determine. On the one hand, establishing an absolute reference frame in the near infrared at the galactic center is inherently difficult because of the lack of extragalactic reference sources; on the other hand Sgr A* is a very dim source at these wavelengths. The near infrared position matches the focus of the orbit os S0-2 within 0.01 arcsec. Various near infrared flares also agree with the position of Sgr A* at radio frequencies.

  17. 17.

    The components of the velocity of the Sun are ∼220–255 km s−1 and (7.16±0.38) km s−1 in and perpendicular to the galactic plane, respectively.

  18. 18.

    Sgr A* itself is very faint in the infrared, so an agglomerate of luminous stars is directly eliminated.

  19. 19.

    The Virial Theorem states that in a system of particles that interact through a potential of the form ∝1/r, the total time-averaged potential energy 〈U〉 and kinetic energy 〈T〉 satisfy 2〈T〉+〈U〉=0 in equilibrium state.

  20. 20.

    Iron lines are also detected in galactic X-ray binaries.

  21. 21.

    The existence of IMBHs in binaries, though, poses theoretical difficulties since no known binary evolutionary path leads to such system. The black hole could have been born isolated and later captured a companion (e.g. Hopman et al. 2004), but in this case all ULXs today should be found in globular or dense star clusters and most are not. Because of their large mass it is also unlikely that IMHBs have been born in clusters but later ejected (e.g. Miller and Hamilton 2002).

  22. 22.

    When the torque is taken to be zero at R in, the maximum temperature is not achieved at the disk inner edge but at a slightly larger radius.

  23. 23.

    Paczyński (1986) considered the possibility of detecting the shadow of black holes produced by the cosmic microwave background. This might be a way to spot isolated black holes.

  24. 24.

    www.eventhorizontelescope.com.

  25. 25.

    http://www.asc.rssi.ru/radioastron.

  26. 26.

    http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/.

  27. 27.

    http://www.ego-gw.it/.

  28. 28.

    www.geo600.org/.

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    Gustavo E. Romero & Gabriela S. Vila

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Romero, G.E., Vila, G.S. (2014). Evidence for Black Holes. In: Introduction to Black Hole Astrophysics. Lecture Notes in Physics, vol 876. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-39596-3_6

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