Abstract
Cells have an amazing ability to sense very shallow gradients of chemoattractants and move directionally. This fundamental process is critical for development and numerous disease states. Dictyostelium has emerged as one of the best understood model systems for elucidating the complex signaling pathways that drive chemotaxis. This review focuses on the signaling mechanisms regulating directed migration and discusses the role of polarity and development on our current understanding of this process. We highlight new findings using a second chemoattractant, folic acid and suggest that this chemical cue should be used when a developmental defect is suspected. We also speculate on recent studies which suggest that researchers should use our new understanding of the temporal and spatial relationships of signaling and cytoskeletal proteins to guide future experiments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Alonso-Latorre, B, Del Álamo, JC, Meili R, Firtel RA, Lasheras JC (2011) An oscillatory contractile pole-force component dominates the traction forces exerted by migrating amoeboid cells. Cell Mol Bioeng 4(4):603–615. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3234362&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Andrew N, Insall RH (2007) Chemotaxis in shallow gradients is mediated independently of PtdIns 3-kinase by biased choices between random protrusions. Nat Cell Biol 9(2):193–200. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17220879)
Augsten M et al (2006) Live-cell imaging of endogenous Ras-GTP illustrates predominant Ras activation at the plasma membrane. EMBO Rep 7(1):46–51. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1369223&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Bader S, Kortholt A, Van Haastert PJM (2007) Seven Dictyostelium discoideum phosphodiesterases degrade three pools of cAMP and cGMP. Biochem J 402(1):153–61. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1783984&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Bagorda A, Parent CA (2008) Eukaryotic chemotaxis at a glance. J Cell Sci 121(Pt 16):2621–4. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18685153)
Baker MD, Wolanin PM, Stock JB (2006) Signal transduction in bacterial chemotaxis. BioEssays News Rev Mol Cell Dev Biol 28(1):9–22. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16369945)
Berns K et al (2007) A functional genetic approach identifies the PI3K pathway as a major determinant of trastuzumab resistance in breast cancer. Cancer Cell 12(4):395–402. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17936563)
Boguski MS, McCormick F (1993) Proteins regulating Ras and its relatives. Nature 366:643–654. (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v366/n6456/abs/366643a0.html)
Bolourani P, Spiegelman GB, Weeks G (2006) Delineation of the roles played by RasG and RasC in cAMP-dependent signal transduction during the early development of Dictyostelium discoideum. Mol Biol Cell 17:4543–4550. (http://www.molbiolcell.org/content/17/10/4543.short)
Bolourani P, Spiegelman G, Weeks G (2010) Ras proteins have multiple functions in vegetative cells of Dictyostelium. Eukaryot Cell 9(11):1728–33. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2976290&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Bonner JT (2009) The social amoebae: the biology of cellular slime molds. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Bourne HR (1997) How receptors talk to trimeric G proteins. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9(2):134–42. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9069253)
Bourne HR, Sanders DA, McCormick F (1991) The GTPase superfamily: conserved structure and molecular mechanism. Nature 349: 117–127 (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v349/n6305/abs/349117a0.html)
Bretschneider T et al (2002) Dynamic organization of the actin system in the motile cells of Dictyostelium. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 23(7–8):639–49. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952063)
Caterina MJ, Hereld D, Devreotes PN (1995) Occupancy of the Dictyostelium cAMP receptor, cAR1, induces a reduction in affinity which depends upon COOH-terminal serine residues. J Biol Chem 270(9):4418–4423
Chiu VK et al (2002) Ras signalling on the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi. Nat Cell Biol 4(5):343–50. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11988737)
Condeelis J, Segall JE (2003) Intravital imaging of cell movement in tumours. Nat Rev Cancer 3(12):921–30. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14737122)
Curtis A, Sokolikova-Csaderova L, Aitchison G (2007) Measuring cell forces by a photoelastic method. Biophys J 92(6):2255–2261. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1861782&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
De Keijzer S et al (2008) A spatially restricted increase in receptor mobility is involved in directional sensing during Dictyostelium discoideum chemotaxis. J Cell Sci 121(Pt 10):1750–7. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18469015)
Devreotes PN (1994) G protein-linked signaling pathways control the developmental program of Dictyostelium. Neuron 12(2):235–241. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8110455)
Devreotes P, Janetopoulos C (2003) Eukaryotic chemotaxis: distinctions between directional sensing and polarization. J Biol Chem 278(23):20445–8. Retrieved (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12672811)
Di Gennaro A, Haeggström JZ (2012) The leukotrienes: immune-modulating lipid mediators of disease. Adv Immunol 116:51–92. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23063073)
Dinauer MC, Steck TL, Devreotes PN (1980) Cyclic 3′,5′-AMP relay in Dictyostelium discoideum IV. Recovery of the cAMP signaling response after adaptation to cAMP. J Cell Biol 86(2):545–53. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2111500&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Dormann D, Kim JY, Devreotes PN, Weijer CJ (2001) cAMP receptor affinity controls wave dynamics, geometry and morphogenesis in Dictyostelium. J Cell Sci 114(Pt 13):2513–23. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11559759)
Driscoll MK et al (2012) Cell shape dynamics: from waves to migration. PLoS Comput Biol 8(3):e1002392. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3305346&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Eichinger L et al (2005) The genome of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum. Nature 435(7038):43–57. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1352341&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Elzie CA, Colby J, Sammons MA, Janetopoulos C (2009). Dynamic localization of G proteins in Dictyostelium discoideum. J Cell Science 122(Pt 15):2597–603. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2909314&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Faix J et al (2001) Recruitment of cortexillin into the cleavage furrow is controlled by Rac1 and IQGAP-related proteins. EMBO J 20(14):3705–15. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=125549&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Fang J, Ding M, Yang L, Liu LZ, Jiang BH (2007) PI3K/PTEN/AKT signaling regulates prostate tumor angiogenesis. Cell Signal 19(12):2487–2497. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2094004/)
Franca-Koh J, Willard SS, Devreotes P (2009) G-protein signaling in chemotaxis. In: Bradshaw RA, Dennis EA (eds) Handbook of cell signaling, vol 2. Oxford: Academic Press, Elsevier Inc, Oxford, pp 1705–1712 (http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=rYgB_jLc8XsC&oi=fnd&pg=PA51&dq=G-Protein+signaling+in+chemotaxis&ots=nIOPUvgJ4C&sig=HFwC0zmO5ILRSDWXdLCD9SzWZuE)
Franciszkiewicz K, Boissonnas A, Boutet M, Combadière C, Mami-Chouaib F (2012) Role of chemokines and chemokine receptors in shaping the effector phase of the antitumor immune response. Cancer Res 72(24):6325–32. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23222302)
Frost EE, Zhou ZC, Krasnesky K, Armstrong RC (2009) Initiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cell migration by a PDGF-A activated extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway. Neurochem Res 34(1):169–181. (http://www.springerlink.com/index/C2045R3N32197165.pdf)
Funamoto S, Meili R, Lee S, Parry L, Firtel RA (2002) Spatial and temporal regulation of 3-phosphoinositides by PI 3-kinase and PTEN mediates chemotaxis. Cell 109(5):611–23. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12062104)
Garcia GL, Rericha EC, Heger CD, Goldsmith PK, Parent CA (2009). The group migration of Dictyostelium cells is regulated by extracellular chemoattractant degradation. Mol Biol Cell 20:3295–3304
Gilman AG (1987) G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals. Annu Rev Biochem 56:615–49. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3113327)
Hadwiger JA, Lee S, Firtel RA (1994) The G alpha subunit G alpha 4 couples to pterin receptors and identifies a signaling pathway that is essential for multicellular development in Dictyostelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91(22):10566–70. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=45062&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Hadwiger JA, Wilkie TM, Strathmann M, Firtel RA (1991) Identification of Dictyostelium G alpha genes expressed during multicellular development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88(18):8213–7. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=52477&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Hereld D, Vaughan R, Kim JY (1994) Localization of ligand-induced phosphorylation sites to serine clusters in the C-terminal domain of the Dictyostelium cAMP receptor, cAR1. J Biol Chem 269:7036–7044. (http://www.jbc.org/content/269/9/7036.short)
Hollestelle A, Elstrodt F, Nagel JHA, Kallemeijn WW, Schutte M (2007) Phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase or RAS pathway mutations in human breast cancer cell lines. Mol Cancer Res 5(2):195–201. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17314276)
Hur SS, Zhao Y, Li Y-S, Botvinick E, Chien S (2009) Live cells exert 3-dimensional traction forces on their substrata. Cell Mol Bioeng 2(3):425–436. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2749171&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Iijima M, Devreotes P (2002) Tumor suppressor PTEN mediates sensing of chemoattractant gradients. Cell 109:599–610
Insall RH, Soede RD, Schaap P, Devreotes PN (1994) Two cAMP receptors activate common signaling pathways in Dictyostelium. Mol Biol Cell 5(6):703–11. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=301085&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Janetopoulos C, Jin T, Devreotes P (2001) Receptor-mediated activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins in living cells. Science 291(5512):2408–11. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11264536)
Janetopoulos C, Borleis J, Vazquez F, Iijima M, Devreotes P (2005) Temporal and spatial regulation of phosphoinositide signaling mediates cytokinesis. Dev Cell 8(4):467–77. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15809030)
Janetopoulos C, Devreotes P (2006) Phosphoinositide signaling plays a key role in cytokinesis. J Cell Biol 174(4):485–90. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2064254&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Janetopoulos C, Firtel RA (2008) Directional sensing during chemotaxis. FEBS Lett 582(14):2075–85. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18452713)
Jin T (2011) GPCR-controlled chemotaxis in Dictyostelium discoideum. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med 3(6):717–27. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21381217)
Johnson RL, Saxe CL, Gollop R, Kimmel AR, Devreotes PN (1993). Identification and targeted gene disruption of cAR3, a cAMP receptor subtype expressed during multicellular stages of Dictyostelium development. Genes Dev 7(2):273–282. (http://www.genesdev.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/gad.7.2.273)
Kae H, Lim CJ, Spiegelman GB, Weeks G (2004) Chemoattractant-induced Ras activation during Dictyostelium aggregation. EMBO Rep 5(6):602–6. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1299071&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Kay RR, Langridge P, Traynor D, Hoeller O (2008). Changing directions in the study of chemotaxis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 9(6):455–63. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18500256)
Kay RR (1982) cAMP and spore differentiation in Dictyostelium discoideum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 79:3228–3231. (http://www.pnas.org/content/79/10/3228.short)
Kessin RH (2001). Dictyostelium: the evolution, cell biology, and development of a social organism, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Kim JY et al (1997) Phosphorylation of chemoattractant receptors is not essential for chemotaxis or termination of G-protein-mediated responses. J Biol Chem 272(43):27313–8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9341180)
Kim JY, Van Haastert P, Devreotes PN (1996) Social senses: G-protein-coupled receptor signaling pathways in Dictyostelium discoideum. Chem Biol 3:239–243. (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074552196901039)
Klein PS et al (1988) A chemoattractant receptor controls development in Dictyostelium discoideum. Science 241(4872):1467–72. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3047871)
Konijn TM, Van De Meene JG (1967). The acrasin activity of adenosine-3′, 5′-cyclic phosphate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 4:1152–1154. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC335761/)
Kraning-Rush CM, Carey SP, Califano JP, Reinhart-King CA (2012) Quantifying traction stresses in adherent cells. Methods Cell Biol 110:139–78. Elsevier Inc. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22482948)
Kumagai A, Hadwiger JA, Pupillo M, Firtel RA (1991) Molecular genetic analysis of two G alpha protein subunits in Dictyostelium. J Biol Chem 266(2):1220–8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1670774)
Landree MA, Devreotes PN (2004) Analyzing chemotaxis using Dictyostelium discoideum as a model system. Methods Mol Biol 239:91–104. (http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi/10.1126/science.2672337)
Levine H, Kessler DA, Rappel W-J (2006) Directional sensing in eukaryotic chemotaxis: a balanced inactivation model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103(26):9761–6. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1502527&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Liu M et al (2012) G protein-coupled receptor FPR1 as a pharmacologic target in inflammation and human glioblastoma. Int Immunopharmacol 14(3):283–8. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22863814)
McCubrey JA et al (2006) Roles of the RAF/MEK/ERK and PI3K/PTEN/AKT pathways in malignant transformation and drug resistance. Adv Enzyme Regul 46:249–79. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16854453)
Ménager C, Arimura N, Fukata Y, Kaibuchi K (2004) PIP3 is involved in neuronal polarization and axon formation. J Neurochem 89(1):109–18. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15030394)
Müller A et al (2001) Involvement of chemokine receptors in breast cancer metastasis. Nature 410(6824):50–6. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11242036)
Nishimura SI, Ueda M, Sasai M (2012) Non-Brownian dynamics and strategy of amoeboid cell locomotion. Phys Rev E 85(4):041909 (1–8). (http://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.85.041909)
Palmieri SJ et al (2000) Mutant Rac1B expression in Dictyostelium: effects on morphology, growth, endocytosis, development, and the actin cytoskeleton. Cell Motil Cytoskelet 46(4):285–304. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10962483)
Pan P, Hall EM, Bonner JT (1972) Folic acid as second chemotactic substance in the cellular slime moulds. Nat New Biol 237:181–182. (http://www.nature.com/nature-newbio/journal/v237/n75/abs/newbio237181a0.html)
Pandolfi PP (2008) P-TEN exciting years: from the cytosol to the nucleus and back to keep cancer at bay. Oncogene 27(41):5386. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18794874)
Parent CA, Blacklock BJ, Froehlich WM, Murphy DB, Devreotes PN (1998) G protein signaling events are activated at the leading edge of chemotactic cells. Cell 95(1):81–91. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9778249)
Pitt GS et al (1992) Structurally distinct and stage-specific adenylyl cyclase genes play different roles in Dictyostelium development. Cell 69(2):305–15. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1348970)
Pupillo M, Insall R, Pitt GS, Devreotes PN (1992) Multiple cyclic AMP receptors are linked to adenylyl cyclase in Dictyostelium. Mol Biol Cell 3(11):1229–34. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=275689&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Raper KB (1935) Dictyostelium discoideum, a new species of slime mold from decaying forest leaves. J Agric Res 50:135–147
Rehberg M et al (2005) Dictyostelium LIS1 is a centrosomal protein required for microtubule/cell cortex interactions, nucleus/centrosome linkage, and actin dynamics. Mol Cell Biochem 16:2759–2771
Reymond CD, Schaap P, Véron M, Williams JG (1995) Dual role of cAMP during Dictyostelium development. Experientia 51(12):1166–74. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8536804)
Ridley AJ (2001) Rho GTPases and cell migration. J Cell Sci 114(Pt 15):2713–22. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11683406)
Romeralo M, Cavender JC, Landolt JC, Stephenson SL, Baldauf SL (2011) An expanded phylogeny of social amoebas (Dictyostelia) shows increasing diversity and new morphological patterns. BMC Evol Biol 11(84):1471–2148
Roussos ET, Condeelis JS, Patsialou A (2011) Chemotaxis in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 11(8):573–87. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21779009)
Samuels Y et al (2004) High frequency of mutations of the PIK3CA gene in human cancers. Science 304(5670):554. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15016963)
Sasaki AT, Chun C, Takeda K, Firtel RA (2004) Localized Ras signaling at the leading edge regulates PI3K, cell polarity, and directional cell movement. J Cell Biol 167(3):505–18. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2172490&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Sasaki AT et al (2007) G protein-independent Ras/PI3K/F-actin circuit regulates basic cell motility. J Cell Biol 178(2):185–91. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2064438&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Sasaki AT, Firtel RA (2006). Regulation of chemotaxis by the orchestrated activation of Ras, PI3K, and TOR. Eur J Cell Biol 85(9-10):873–95. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16740339)
Saxe CL, Johnson R, Devreotes PN, Kimmel AR (1991) Multiple genes for cell surface cAMP receptors in Dictyostelium discoideum. Dev Genet 12(1–2):6–13. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2049880)
Schneider L et al (2010) Directional cell migration and chemotaxis in wound healing response to PDGF-AA are coordinated by the primary cilium in fibroblasts. Cell Physiol Biochem 25:279–292. (http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Directional+cell+migration+and+chemotaxis+in+wound+healing+response+to+PDGF-AA+are+coordinated+by+the+primary+cilium+in+fibroblasts#0)
Schoen I, Hu W, Klotzsch E, Vogel V (2010) Probing cellular traction forces by micropillar arrays: contribution of substrate warping to pillar deflection. Nano Lett 10(5):1823–30. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2881340&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Semplice M, Veglio A, Naldi G, Serini G, Gamba A (2012) A bistable model of cell polarity. PloS one 7(2):e30977. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3285628&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Servant G, Weiner OD, Neptune ER, Sedat JW, Bourne HR (1999) Dynamics of a chemoattractant receptor in living neutrophils during chemotaxis. Mol Biol Cell 10(4):1163–78. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=25243&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Snaar-Jagalska BE, Haastert PJM (1990) Pertussis toxin inhibits cAMP-induced desensitization of adenylate cyclase in Dictyostelium discoideum. Mol Cell Biochem 92:177–189. (http://www.springerlink.com/index/R2U6206M31112208.pdf)
Srinivasan K et al (2013) Delineating the core regulatory elements crucial for directed cell migration by examining folic-acid-mediated responses. J Cell Sci 126(Pt 1):221–33. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23132928)
Stephens L, Milne L, Hawkins P (2008) Moving towards a better understanding of chemotaxis. Curr Biol 18(11):R485–94. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18522824)
Strader CD, Fong TM, Graziano MP, Tota MR (1995) The family of G-protein-coupled receptors. FASEB J 745–754. (http://www.fasebj.org/content/9/9/745.short)
Takeda K et al (2012) Incoherent feedforward control governs adaptation of activated ras in a eukaryotic chemotaxis pathway. Sci Signal 5(205):ra2. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22215733)
Theibert A, Devreotess N (1986) Surface receptor-mediated activation of adenylate cyclase in Dictyostelium. 261(32):15121–15125
Ueda M, Sako Y, Tanaka T, Devreotes P, Yanagida T (2001) Single-molecule analysis of chemotactic signaling in Dictyostelium cells. Science 294(5543):864–7. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11679673)
Van Haastert PJM, Devreotes PN (2004) Chemotaxis: signalling the way forward. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 5(8):626–34. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15366706)
Varani J (1982) Chemotaxis of metastatic tumor cells. Cancer Metastasis Rev 1(1):17–28
Vazquez F, Sellers WR (2000) The PTEN tumor suppressor protein: an antagonist of phosphoinositide 3-kinase signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta 1470(1):M21–35. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10656987)
Wang F (2009) The signaling mechanisms underlying cell polarity and chemotaxis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 1(4):a002980. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2773618&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Weiss-Haljiti C et al (2004) Involvement of phosphoinositide 3-kinase gamma, Rac, and PAK signaling in chemokine-induced macrophage migration. J Biol Chem 279(41):43273–84. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15292195)
Whitman M, Downes CP, Keeler M, Keller T, Cantley L (1988) Type I phosphatidylinositol kinase makes a novel inositol phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate. Nature 332(6165):644–6. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2833705)
Wood W, Faria C, Jacinto A (2006) Distinct mechanisms regulate hemocyte chemotaxis during development and wound healing in Drosophila melanogaster. J Cell Biol 173(3):405–16. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2063841&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Wu L, Valkema R, Van Haastert P, Devreotes PN (1995) The G protein beta subunit is essential for multiple responses to chemoattractants in Dictyostelium. J Cell Biol 129(6):1667–1675. (http://jcb.rupress.org/content/129/6/1667.abstract)
Xiao Z, Zhang N, Murphy DB, Devreotes PN (1997) Dynamic distribution of chemoattractant receptors in living cells during chemotaxis and persistent stimulation. J Cell Biol 139(2):365–74. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2139806&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Xiong Y, Huang C-H, Iglesias PA, Devreotes PN (2010) Cells navigate with a local-excitation, global-inhibition-biased excitable network. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(40):17079–86. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2951443&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Zhang M, Goswami M, Hereld D (2005) Constitutively active G protein-coupled receptor mutants block dictyostelium development. Mol Biol Cell 16(2):562–72. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=545893&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Zhang N, LongY, Devreotes PN (2001) Ggamma in dictyostelium: its role in localization of gbetagamma to the membrane is required for chemotaxis in shallow gradients. Mol Biol Cell 12(10):3204–13. (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=60167&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jowhar, D., Janetopoulos, C. (2013). The Chemotactic Compass. In: Romeralo, M., Baldauf, S., Escalante, R. (eds) Dictyostelids. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38487-5_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-38487-5_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-38486-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-38487-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)