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Hyperacidic Volcanic Lakes, Metal Sinks and Magmatic Gas Expansion in Arc Volcanoes

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Volcanic Lakes

Part of the book series: Advances in Volcanology ((VOLCAN))

Abstract

Hyperacidic volcanic lakes are expressions of much larger scale magmatic gas expansion inside volcanoes from source to surface. Their temperature and acidity are sustained by the capture of heat and SO2 (and HCl) and a suite of metals and metalloids, including Cu, Fe, As, Au, Bi, Se, Te, and Sb, from the magmatic gas. These lakes, together with high temperature fumaroles, therefore provide clues about the physics and chemistry of high temperature gas flow at the volcano scale that otherwise are inaccessible to direct observation. Understanding of the relationship between acidic volcanic lakes and these larger scale processes also has implications for modeling the flank stability of active volcanoes and how economically-valuable copper and gold deposits formed in ancient volcanoes. Such understanding may also translate to considerations of sulfur-rich environments on other planets as well as to the origin of life on earth.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Terminology is always important. Here the term ‘hydrothermal’ refers to processes involving hot water whether liquid or gas. Vapor means a gas phase in equilibrium with a condensed phase whether solid, liquid or melt. In this paper, the term ‘gas’ is used rather than ‘vapor’ except where specific to a phase relationship. Miscellaneous terms that are avoided here are ‘brine’ ( water close to saturation with salt) and ‘boiling’ which means phase separation due to continuous vigorous heating (as in a kettle), whereas phase separation in volcano-hosted hydrothermal systems occurs through simple processes as described in the text. The generic term fluid is used only in the context of fluid dynamics, i.e. how liquid, gas (or vapor) move through bodies of rock and otherwise sparingly as in convenient terms such as geothermal fluid where vapor and liquid phase properties are involved together.

  2. 2.

    Although having its roots in the Italian, solfo, meaning sulphur, the term, solfatara, is used broadly to refer to volcano and geothermal regimes characterised by acidic rock alteration and steam discharges. The term, fumarole, refers specifically to vents inside solfatara. In geothermal systems, these features are associated with shallow processes (Henley and Stewart 1983). In this chapter the emphasis on is much higher enthalpy and temperature solfatara and fumaroles directly related to the discharge of volcanic gas.

  3. 3.

    Heat flux is expressed as a unit of power; a megawatt (MWH) is equivalent to an energy flow of 106 J of heat per second.

  4. 4.

    Figure 8 charts phase boundaries and specific enthalpies for fluids in the NaCl–H2O system. The CO2 content of volcanic gases tends not to exceed a few mole percent and therefore contributes only a minor pressure effect on these systematics.

  5. 5.

    Any economic value for these metal sinks, as mineral deposits, is a consequence of higher order effects such as the specific geometry of transmissive fractures and bulk strength of host rocks as they evolve in the volcano-hosted hydrothermal systems environment. Do all these sinks occur within a continuum? Much speculation has attended this question primarily as an issue for exploration geologists. There are however only a few spatial and broadly temporal locations where economic porphyry and higher level Cu–As–Au mineralisation appears to be coincident.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Richard Arculus, Barney Berger, Bruce Christenson, Pierre Delmelle, Penny King, Gary Rowe, Tarun Whan and Jeremy Wykes for enthusiastic discussions and constructive comments. I am also grateful to Bruce for providing this opportunity to consider some of the geochemical problems posed by hyperacidic lakes. Bali-based landscape photographer, Jessy Eykendorp, very kindly gave permission for reproduction of her Kawah Ijen photograph. I thank Frank Brink for guidance in FESEM methodology. I also want to thank my wife, Meg, for patience and cheerful forbearance through 50 years of geology!

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  1. Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia

    R. W. Henley

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  1. Sezione di Bologna, Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Bologna, Italy

    Dmitri Rouwet

  2. GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

    Bruce Christenson

  3. Earth Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

    Franco Tassi

  4. Institut des Sciences de la Terre, Université de Savoie, Le Bourget du Lac, France

    Jean Vandemeulebrouck

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Henley, R.W. (2015). Hyperacidic Volcanic Lakes, Metal Sinks and Magmatic Gas Expansion in Arc Volcanoes. In: Rouwet, D., Christenson, B., Tassi, F., Vandemeulebrouck, J. (eds) Volcanic Lakes. Advances in Volcanology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36833-2_6

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