Abstract
In this paper, I will explore the process by which news and newspaper articles became a recognised source for Chinese encyclopaedic works of new knowledge in the late nineteenth century. At first sight, the assumption itself seems self-contradictory: we commonly think of newspapers and encyclopaedias as serving different purposes, as being manufactured under different premises, and as produced by different social actors. While we assume that journalists produce quick ephemeral news to be sold on a daily basis, encyclopaedists produce standardised and sustainable summaries of up-to-date learning. In times of rapid change, these might even serve as introductory reference works for a new order of knowledge or a new educational system. Again, while publishers of newspapers or encyclopaedias pursue similar goals—marketing information for the purpose of educating the common people—their understanding of how to achieve this differs fundamentally. In order to provide the latest information, but also to overcome the numbing reiteration of certain standardized statements, newspapers produce and disseminate new knowledge daily. Encyclopaedists, however, seem to aim for the exact opposite, namely to standardise the most recent knowledge and turn it into a canon authorised by either secular or religious authorities.
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Notes
- 1.
I wish to thank the editors of this volume for their extraordinary editorial work and many helpful suggestions.
- 2.
For statistics on the encyclopaedic works, see Fig. 1 in the Introduction to the present volume. For the larger set of books on new knowledge, see the bibliographical database compiled for the project “Wissenschaftssprache Chinesisch” (Modern Chinese Scientific Terminologies) in Göttingen in 1999–2001, which contains more than 400 titles on new knowledge, xinxue 新學, ranging from the 1850s to the early years of the twentieth century (http://mcst.uni-hd.de/search/searchMCST_short.lasso).
- 3.
For a prosopographical study of these new Treaty Port intellectuals, see Natascha Vittinghoff, “Social Actors in the Field of New Learning,” in Mapping Meanings. The Field of New Learning in Late Qing China, eds. Natascha Vittinghoff and Michael Lackner (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 75–118.
- 4.
For biographical data on these journalists and their involvement in journalism, see Natascha Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge des Journalismus in China, 1860–1911 (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2002).
- 5.
Paul Michel and Madeleine Herren, “Unvorgreifliche Gedanken zu einer Theorie des Enzyklopädischen” [Open-ended thoughts about a theory of the encyclopaedic], in Allgemeinwissen und Gesellschaft: Akten des internationalen Kongresses über Wissenstransfer und enzyklopädische Ordnungssysteme, vom 18. bis 21. September 2003 in Pragins, eds. Paul Michel, Madeleine Herren, Martin Rüesch (Aachen: Shaker, 2007), 23.
- 6.
Cai Erkang 蔡爾康, comp., Jiwen leibian 記聞類編 (Shanghai: Jiqi yinshuju, 1877). The “machine printing office” 機器印書局 which published the book was probably part of the Shenbao publishing conglomerate. The full name of this office will be found in the advertisement for the book, Shenbao, March 28, 1977, p. 7. This advertisement also shows that the publication was originally planned as the beginning of a series. The Shenbao was one of the earliest Chinese-language newspapers in China. Founded in 1872 in Shanghai, it reached a nationwide circulation of 10,000 copies daily within a few years.
- 7.
Natascha Vittinghoff, “Useful Knowledge and Proper Communication: Strategies and Models of Publishing Houses in the Formative Stage of the Chinese Press (1872–1882),” in Joining the Global Public. Word, Image and City in the Early Chinese Newspapers 1870–1910, ed. Rudolf G. Wagner (New York: SUNY, 2007), 47–104.
- 8.
For the context of the emphasis on fact-based objective reporting and analysis at the time in diplomatic reports, diplomats’ diaries, newspapers, encyclopaedic works and even novels, see the contributions by Douglas Reynolds and Rudolf Wagner in this volume.
- 9.
Yishu hui zhuren 譯書會主人, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong 中外政藝策府統宗 (Shanghai: Zhong wai yishu hui, 1901), juan 24. For details of the entries on newspapers in late Qing encyclopaedic works, see the essay by Rudolf Wagner in this volume.
- 10.
Michel Foucault, The Order of Things (London: Routledge, 1991) xv.
- 11.
Jorge L. Borges, “John Wilkin’s Analytical Language,” in Selected Non-Fictions: Jorge Luis Borges, ed. Eliot Weinberger (New York: Penguin Books 1999), 231.
- 12.
Since the generic term lei 類 in the title Classified Collection suggests its close relation to leishu, as a “classified book,” which complies with the most general definition given by Kenneth Dewoskin, I feel safe to assume that certain assumptions about leishu may also be expected to operate in this collection of texts. Moreover, the title suggests that the volume is not meant to be read in a linear fashion, but presented as a handbook for looking up specific topics of interest. Cf. Kenneth Dewoskin, “Lei-shu,” in Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature, ed. William H. Nienhauser, 526–29 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986); Christoph Kaderas, Die Leishu der imperialen Bibliothek des Kaisers Qianlong (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998).
- 13.
Makenxi 馬懇西 (= Robert Mackenzie), Taixi xinshi lanyao 泰西新史攬要 [Essentials of the West’s recent history], [orally] trans. Timothy Richard 李提摩太, recorded by Cai Erkang 蔡爾康 (Shanghai: Tushu jicheng, 1896; reprint, Shanghai: Guangxue hui, 1902). Based on Mackenzie’s The 19th Century. A History (London: T. Nelson, 1880). The first edition of 30,000 volumes sold out quickly, another edition in 1898 again sold out in 2 weeks. Moreover, there were over 20 different editions of the Essentials of the West’s Recent History, and 100 copies alone were ordered by the Hanlin Academy.
- 14.
Lin Yuezhi 林樂知 (= Young John Allen), tr., Cai Erkang 蔡爾康, comp., Zhong Dong zhanji benmo 中東戰纪本末 (Shanghai: Guangxue hui, 1896). The two sequels, xubian 續編 and sanbian 三編, came out in the same year (Shanghai: Tushi jicheng, 1896). On Cai Erkang, see Zhang Hui 章暉 and Ma Jun 馬軍, “Youli zai ru ye zhi jian de Cai Erkang” 游離在儒耶之間的蔡爾康 [Cai Erkang, drifting between Confucianism and Christianity] Lishi yu renwu 5 (1998): 72–74; Natascha Vittinghoff, “Ein Leben am Rande des Ruhms: Cai Erkang (1852–1921)” in In Memoriam of Helmut Martin, ed. Christina Neder, Heiner Rötz and Ines-Susanne Schilling (Bochum: Projekt Verlag 2001), 195–205; Natascha Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge des Journalismus; Tian Zhongchu 田中初, “Youli zai Zhong Xi zhi jian de wan Qing baoren Cai Erkang” 遊歷在中西之間的晚清報人蔡爾康 [Cai Erkang: A late Qing journalist drifting between China and the West], Xinwen daxue 4 (2003): 23–27. Cai is known for having coined the Chinese rendering for Karl Marx in an article for the Wanguo gongbao 萬國公報 [parallel title: Review of the Times], which he edited with Timothy Richard.
- 15.
Wanwei Shuqiao 宛委書樵, “Xuan xinwenzhi cheng shu shuo” 選新聞紙成書說 [About a selection of newspaper articles being made into a book], Shenbao, March 28, 1877, 1.
- 16.
For example, the famous journalist W. T. Stead (1849–1912), who founded the Review of Reviews in Britain in 1890, explains in the preface to his new journal why a guide and index to all publications in existence is needed. “Programme,” The Review of Reviews 1 (1890): 14.
- 17.
Beginning May 1872, the Shenbao appeared daily (except Sundays) in eight pages, with three pages of editorials, articles, and poetry and three pages of reprints from the Peking Gazette, Jingbao 京报, one page of advertisements, and one page for shipping announcements.
- 18.
This definition of the Shenbao’s news value appears in the preface to the volume, as well as the editorial promoting this book, and is recognisable as it likewise appears in the editorial announcement of the Shenbao’s inaugural issue: “Benguan gaobai,” 本館告白 [Announcement by our publishing house], Shenbao, 30 April, 1872, 1.
- 19.
Preface. Cai Erkang 蔡尔康, “Jiwen leibian” 記聞類編 [Classified collection of news] in Zhongguo jindai shiliao congkan sanbian 中國近代史料叢刊三編 [Collection of materials on the history of modern China] (Tabei: Wenhai 1986), 172–173. This preface is not in the original edition at the Harvard Yenching Institute.
- 20.
Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Xixue shumu biao xuli” 西學書目表序例 [Preface and reading instructions to a bibliography of Western learning],” in Zhixue congshu chuji 質學叢書初集 [Encyclopaedia of substantive learning. First set] (Wuchang: Zhixuehui, 1897), 3a.
- 21.
Zhao Weixi, Xixue shumu dawen (Guiyang: Guiyang xueshu, 1901).
- 22.
Cf. Iwo Amelung’s essay in this volume.
- 23.
Note that the alphabet also grants easy access for lay scientists, whereas dispositions according to basic assumptions about the order of the world require knowledge of these assumptions. In the European context, the introduction of the alphabetical order was seen as a “massacre of categories” by the cultural historian Robert Darnton; a similar “neutral” way of ordering was also introduced by missionaries to China in the nineteenth century in the form of stroke number classification in order to dissolve all existent orders of classification. Stroke numbers were introduced to Chinese encyclopaedias in 1908 and 1911. See also Milena Doleželová-Velingerová’s contribution in this volume.
- 24.
Summarised from Paul Michel, “Ordnungen des Wissens. Darbietungsweisen des Materials in Enzyklopädien” in Populäre Enzyklopädien. Von der Auswahl, Ordnung und Vermittlung von Wissen, ed. Ingrid Tomkowiak (Zürich: Chronos Verlag, 2002), 5–83.
- 25.
For the relation between the Jiwen leibian and collections of statecraft writings of the late nineteenth century, see Andrea Janku, “Preparing the Ground for Revolutionary Discourse: From the Jingshiwen Compilations to Journalistic Writings in Nineteenth Century China,” T'oung Pao 90, nos. 1–3 (2004): 65–121.
- 26.
Beginning with the Erya 爾雅 (third century B.C.E.).
- 27.
As in dictionaries, since the Shuowen jiezi 說文解字 [Explaining words by analyzing characters] (100 C.E.).
- 28.
As in rhyme lexica since the Qieyun 切韻 (601 C.E). Arguably, all three examples represent dictionaries and lexica rather than encyclopaedias, yet, apart from the Qieyun, their content is arranged according to leishu categories.
- 29.
These Hong Kong papers all had similar layouts, organised under rubric headings like “Selections from/Complete Peking Gazette,” Jingbao xuanlu 京報選錄, Jingbao quanlu 京報全祿, “News from Canton,” Yangcheng xinwen 羊城新聞, “National and International News,” Zhong wai xinwen 中外新聞, “Telegrams,” Dianbao 電報 and “Letters,” Laizha 來扎.
- 30.
See Natascha Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge, 277–278.
- 31.
Andrea Janku draws a direct connection to the Classified Collection of News. See Janku, “Preparing the Ground.”
- 32.
Mai Zhonghua 麥仲華, Huangchao jingshiwen xinbian 皇朝經世文新編 (Shanghai: Shanghai shuju, 1898).
- 33.
Only a few other articles are signed—mostly with pennames. Among them are five poems by Cai Erkang under one of his pennames, Immortal Historian of the Threads of Fragrance, Lüxin xianshi 縷馨僊史.
- 34.
Foucault, Order of Things, xvi–xvii.
- 35.
The title of the Bowu zhi is translated variously as Record of Various Things, Treatise on the Investigation of Things or Records of the Strange, according to the translator’s emphasis. In order to retain the ambiguity of the title I prefer to use the original Chinese. For more information on the Bowu zhi see Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 215.
- 36.
For general information on the Investigation into Deities see Nienhauser, Indiana Companion, 716–17.
- 37.
For example: “Benguan gaobai” 本館告白 [Announcement by our publishing house], Shenbao, 30 April, 1872, 1; “Benguan tiaoli” 本館條例 [Statutes of our publishing house], Shenbao, 30 April, 1872, 2; “Benguan zishu” 本館自述 [Self-description of our publishing house], Shenbao, 8 May, 1872, 1; “Benguan zixu” 本館自敘 [Introduction by our publishing house], Shenbao, 20 May, 1872, 1.
- 38.
Ji Yun 紀昀, Siku quanshu zongmu (Taibei: Yiwen yinshuguan, [1782] 1964).
- 39.
D. J. Macgowan/Magaowen 瑪高溫, Philosophical Almanac in Chinese/[parallel title:] Bowu tongshu 博物通書 (Ningbo: Zhenshen tang, 1851).
- 40.
Benjamin Hobson/Hexin 合信, Bowu xinbian 博物新編 (Shanghai: Mohai shuguan, 1855).
- 41.
The linguistic substitution of gezhi and bowu, i.e. new knowledge that comprises the field of “science” including social sciences open to hybrid and diverse practices, with xixue is usually attributed to the late 1880s and 1890s. For a detailed discussion of this process, see Benjamin Elman, “From Pre-modern Chinese Natural Studies 格致学 to Modern Science 科学 in China,” in Mapping Meanings: The Field of New Learning in Late Qing China, ed. Michael Lackner and Natascha Vittinghoff, 25–74 (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
- 42.
On the New Erya and the Terminological Dictionary of Natural History see Milena Doleželová-Velingerová’s contribution in this volume.
- 43.
Dewoskin, “Lei-shu”, 528.
- 44.
Li Fang 李昉 et al., comp., Taiping yulan (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju [1984] 1985).
- 45.
One article in the “discussion” section refers to a memorial in the first section.
- 46.
Dewoskin, “Lei-shu,” 529.
- 47.
Dewoskin, “Lei-shu,” 528.
- 48.
Cf. Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge, 61–70.
- 49.
Xiong Yuezhi 熊月之, Xixue dongjian yu wan Qing shehui 西學東漸與晚清社會 [parallel title: The Dissemination of Western Learning and Late Qing Society] (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin, 2000); Su Jing 蘇精, “Cong Ying Hua shuyuan dao Zhonghua yinwu zongju—jindai zhongwen yinshua chuban xin jumian” 從英華書院到中華印務總局—近代中文印刷出版的新局面 [From English-Chinese College to Chinese General Printing Bureau—a new chapter in modern Chinese printing], in Wang Tao yu jindai shijie 王韜與近代世界 [Wang Tao and the modern world], eds. Lin Qiyan 林啓彥 and Huang Wenjiang 黃文江 (Hongkong: Xianggang jiaoyu tushu gongsi, 2000), 299–312.
- 50.
Cf. An Pingqiu 安平秋 et al., eds., Zhongguo jinshu daguan 中國禁書大觀 [An overview of banned Chinese books] (Shanghai: Shanghai wenhua, 1990), 656.
- 51.
Kan Hongliu 闞紅柳, “Qing chu xuezhe zhi dang’an yishi” 清初學者之檔案意識 [Early Qing scholars’ awareness of archival material], Liaoning daxue xuebao 30 (2002), 52.
- 52.
Liang Tingnan, Haiguo sishuo (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, [1846] 1993); Wei Yuan, Haiguo tuzhi (Taibei: Chengwen, 1967); Chen Shenglin 陈胜粦, “Lin Zexu ‘kaiyan kan shijie’ de zhengui jilu—Lin shi <Yangshi zalu> pingjie” 林则徐“开眼看世界”的珍贵记录––林氏 〈〈洋事杂录〉〉 评介 [Lin Zexu’s valuable record that ‘opened the eyes to the world’—An assessment of ‘Miscellaneous records of Western affairs’ by Mr Lin], Zhongshan daxue xuebao 3 (1986): 1–13.
- 53.
Liang Qichao 梁啟超, “Du xixue shu fa” 讀西學書法, in Liang Qichao, Xixue shumu biao 西學書目表, appendix, in Zhixue hui 質學會, comp., Zhixue congshu chuji 質學叢書初集 (Wuchang: Zhixuehui, 1897), 13b–14a. The 1879 quotation about this work from Kang Youwei’s chronology of his own life will be found in Ma Guangren 馬光仁, Shanghai xinwen shi 上海新聞史 [History of the Shanghai press] (Shanghai: Fudan daxue, 1996), 73–74.
- 54.
Xunhuan Ribao, week edition, 4th–12th of February 1874.
- 55.
Liang Qichao, “Xixue shumu biao,” in Zhixue congshu chuji 質學叢書初集 (Wuchang: Zhixuehui, 1897); Xu Weize, “Dong Xi xue shulu,” in Jindai yishu mu 近代譯書目 [Bibliography of translation in the modern era], ed. Wang Tao, Gu Xieguang et al. (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan, 2003), 1–24; Gu Xieguang, “Yishu jingyan lu,” in Jindai yishu mu, 399–666. As Gu’s collection is based on a new edition of Xu Weize’s bibliography, the main content is based on publications from 1904 onward.
- 56.
Not all of the titles have been located so far. This list has been compiled by combining information from the WSC Database, Rudolf G. Wagner, Bibliography of Chinese Encyclopaedic Works 1840–1937, with other book catalogues.
- 57.
Cf. Benjamin Elman, A Cultural History of Civil Examinations in Late Imperial China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 594–605.
- 58.
Yao Gonghe 姚公鶴, Shanghai xianhua 上海閒話 [Anecdotes on Shanghai] (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1989), 132–33; Zhou Zhenhe 周振鹤 gives evidence for the marketability of these new books in his Wanqing yingye shumu 晚清營業書目 [Catalogue of book publishers in the late Qing] (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian, 2005).
- 59.
Bao Tianxiao 包天笑, Chuanyinglou huiyi lu 釧影樓回憶錄 [Memoirs from the Chuanying loft] (Taiyuan: Shanxi guji, 1999), 169.
- 60.
Lu Runyang, “Xu” 序 [Preface], in Zhong wai cewen daguan, comp. Lei Jin 雷縉 and Lu Runyang 陸潤庠 (Shanghai: Yangengshan zhuang, 1903), 3–4.
- 61.
On the polemical nature of the discussions about the status of journalists in the Late Qing, see Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge, 23–30.
- 62.
Zhu Dawen 朱大文, Ling Gengyang 淩賡颺, eds., Wanguo zhengzhi yixue quanshu 萬國政治藝學全書. Internal title: Wanguo zhengzhi congkao 萬國政治叢考 (Shanghai: Hongwen shuju, 1902).
- 63.
Cf. Rudolf G. Wagner’s essay in this volume.
- 64.
Zheng Guanying, “Ribao” 日報 [Dailies] in Shengshi weiyan 盛世危言 [Words of warning in prosperous times] (Shenyang: Liaoning renmin, [1893] 1994).
- 65.
Chen Yan 陳衍, “Lun Zhongguo yi she yangwen baoguan” 論中國宜設洋文報館 [Why China should establish newspapers in Western languages], in Zhongguo jindai baokan shi ziliao 中國近代報刊史資料. 上 [Reference materials on the history of journalism in modern China] (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue, 1982), 1:235–237.
- 66.
Wang Tao, “Lun ge sheng hui cheng yi she xinbaoguan” 論各省會城宜設新報館 [Why provinces, counties and cities should establish newspapers], Shenbao, February 19, 1878, 1. I have so far collected more than 100 articles dealing with newspapers, dating from the early decades of the nineteenth century up till 1905, which show that this has been a widely discussed issue throughout the nineteenth century.
- 67.
Shao Zhitang 邵之棠, comp. Huangchao jingshiwen tongbian 皇朝經世文統編 (Shanghai, Baosha zhai, 1901).
- 68.
Yishu hui zhuren 譯書會主人, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong 中外政藝策府統宗 (Shanghai: Zhong wai yishu hui, 1901).
- 69.
Accordingly, the order of entries in this statecraft essay collection is very unique and follows exactly the order of the examination subjects. Cf. Shen Yan 沈艷, “Jindai ‘jingshi wenbian’ gengxu chaoliu shulun” 近代'經世文編’賡續潮流述論[ Discussion of the continuous trend of modern ‘statecraft essays’], Shixue lilun yu shixueshi, 3, (2004):112.
- 70.
Of these ten essays only two (those dealt with here) overlap with the examination handbook, which again shows that compilers had a large pool of writings on newspapers to draw on. Also Shao included writings of a foreigner, in this case Ernst Faber 華之安 (1839–1899).
- 71.
The only exception I know of is Qiushizhai’s 求是齋 Huangchao jingshi wenbian wu ji 皇朝經世文編五集 [Collection of statecraft essays from our August Dynasty. Fifth set] (Shanghai: Yijin shi, 1902).
- 72.
Li Timotai 李提摩太 (= Timothy Richard), Shishi xinlun 事實新論 (Shanghai: Guangxue hui, 1894). E.g. Chen Zhongyi’s 陳忠倚 Three Collections of Statecraft Essays of our August Dynasty 皇朝經世文三編 (Shanghai: Saoye Shanfang, 1898) which contains over a dozen articles by Timothy Richard, as well as articles by Young Allen, Wang Tao, Zheng Guangying, and other prominent reformers of the time. This collection also has some articles about newspapers under the category “postal affairs,” but in this case not by Timothy Richard but by Zheng Guanying, e.g. his well-known article “Dailies” quoted above. On the publication of New Discussion of Contemporary Affairs, cf. Jessie Gregory Lutz, China and the Christian colleges, 1850–1950, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971, 84.
- 73.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24,1a–2a.
- 74.
Interestingly, Japan, which is an important model for educational reform in this period and much ahead in terms of newspaper publishing, is not mentioned at all.
- 75.
Shenbao, “Lun yuebao you da yi yu ren” 論閱報有大益於人, Shenbao no. 7953, June 12, 1895, p. 1.
- 76.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 2a–3a. Shenbao no. 4785, Aug. 11, 1885.
- 77.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 3a–4b. Shenbao no. 6020, Jan. 26, 1890, p. 1.
- 78.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 4b–5b. Shenbao no. 6666, Nov. 10, 1891, p. 1.
- 79.
It appears in the Shenbao under the slightly different title “Zhongguo zhenxing ribao lun” 中國振興日報論 [On China promoting newspapers], Shenbao no. 6313, Nov. 15, 1890, p. 1.
- 80.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 5b–6b, 6a.
- 81.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 6b–7b.
- 82.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 7b–8b.
- 83.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 8b–9b.
- 84.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 9b–10a.
- 85.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 10a.
- 86.
Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 10a–10b.
- 87.
Richard raises an issue here which has been the focus of the most heated debates since the 1870s, viz. the exclusion of any news on foreigners in China from the official gazettes, which culminated in Sir Thomas Wade forcing the Chinese government to include information about the Margary Affair of 1875 in the Court Gazette. Cf. Natascha Vittinghoff, Die Anfänge des Journalismus, 299–300.
- 88.
“Today clever young men all read newspapers in the leisure time from their school lessons, although this is of no use for their regular lessons” 近 日 聰 穎 子 弟 每 於 塾課 之 暇 喜 閱 日 報 雖 於 正 課 無 益, Yishu hui zhuren, comp., Zhong wai zheng yi cefu tongzong, juan 24, 8a.
- 89.
Published in Shiwubao in 1896, this is one of the most quoted text on early Chinese journalism “theory”. Reprinted in Zhongguo jindai baokan shi ziliao 中國近代報刊史資料. 上 [Reference materials on the history of journalism in modern China] 242–245 (Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue, 1982).
- 90.
Stephen R. Mackinnon, “Liang Shih-I and the Communications Clique,” The Journal of Asian Studies 29, no. 3 (May 1970): 582–583.
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———, comp., Lin Yuezhi (Young John Allen), tr. Zhong Dong zhanji benmo 中東戰纪本末 [The background story of Sino-Japanese War]. Shanghai: Tushu jicheng, 1896.
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Gentz, N. (2014). From News, Xinwen 新聞, to New Knowledge, Xinxue 新學: Newspapers as Sources for Early Modern Chinese Encyclopaedias. In: Doleželová-Velingerová, M., Wagner, R. (eds) Chinese Encyclopaedias of New Global Knowledge (1870-1930). Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-35916-3_3
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