Abstract
Harriss-White, Mishra, and Prakash argue that citizenship is a universal concept that might have a tenuous bearing on reality. There is no consensus about the concept of economic citizenship, which, they suggest is currently being exported from the European heartland to developing countries in private aid-driven projects of social entrepreneurship. It is replete with tensions. Unlike the concept of political citizenship, economic citizenship is not a concept of formal equality. Hariss-White et al. analyze the role of the state, markets and civil society in furthering the project with a range of proxy labels which de facto advances economic citizenship. Through a case study of Arunachal they show the role of a non-state, non-market institution—ethnicity—in structuring and differentiating economic citizenship.
Keywords
- Civil Society
- Social Entrepreneurship
- Informal Economy
- Multidimensional Poverty
- North American Free Trade Agreement
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- 1.
Early versions of parts of this paper have been presented at the South Asia Institute, Heidelberg, 2008, the FICCI-Said Business School Conference on Globalisation and Developing Economies: Concerns of Social Inclusion, Oxford University, 2008; the inauguration of the “India in the World Centre,” Liverpool University, 2008; and the Cambridge University Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities (CRASSH) international workshop “Experiencing the State,” 2009. To everyone who has engaged with it, especially to Binda Sahni, Subrata Mitra, Prasanna Nayak, James Manor, Marcus Pohlmann and Marie Lall, we are very grateful. Marshall, and Bottomore 1950. See Schoettli in this volume for the parallel evolution of similar ideas by Nehru.
- 2.
For Beveridge, these were hunger, sickness, ignorance, squalor (lack of shelter and sanitation), and unemployment.
- 3.
See the discussion in Kymlicka and Norman (1994).
- 4.
Chatterjee (2008). See Economic and Political Weekly 18 November 2008 for several critical rejoinders.
- 5.
- 6.
The focus of citizenship remains male biased.
- 7.
White (2002).
- 8.
Kymlicka and Norman (1994).
- 9.
Ghose (2008).
- 10.
Sahni (2009), Jayal (forthcoming). See Spiess here. See also Harriss-White (2005) on the joint production and criminalisation of destitution by both state and society.
- 11.
See Mitra, Manor, Spiess and Pfetsch in this volume.
- 12.
Kymlicka and Norman (1994).
- 13.
- 14.
Khan (2004).
- 15.
McDonough (2007), Harriss-White (2003).
- 16.
- 17.
It requires the creation of mechanisms to ensure obligation, to claim rights, to claim redress for non-provision, to adjudicate claims and enforce the results of that adjudication (see Alston 1994, for the context of the right to food).
- 18.
Kymlicka and Norman (1994), p. 394.
- 19.
See Manor in this volume.
- 20.
Prakash and Harriss-White (2009).
- 21.
See Schoettli in this volume.
- 22.
- 23.
- 24.
Not only is over 40 % of the Indian economy black, but also at least 5 % disappears each year in capital flight mainly through the over invoicing of exports and under invoicing of imports at a huge opportunity cost (Kumar 1999; Srinivasan 2007).
- 25.
Roy (1996), used what remains the latest available data to reveal that the leakages from the state due to corruption are one twentieth those due to tax evasion. Tax revenues are at the time of writing (2010) growing more slowly than GDP. While the tax base is increasing, excise duty and corporation tax have fallen short of the 2009–2010 budget target (Mukherjee 2010).
- 26.
As confidently predicted by social theorists such as Weber, Myrdal, and the founding fathers of modern Indian sociology (for example Madan and Srinivas) see Harriss-White 2003.
- 27.
- 28.
See the summary of evidence in Sengupta et al. (2008).
- 29.
Article 39 and 41 of the Indian Constitution.
- 30.
SCs are 16 % of the Indian population and supply 29 % of all days of work in 2009; STs are 8 % and perform 25 % of work-days; women are 32 % of the labour force but make up 48 % of the workforce on the NREG programme (Reddy and Upendranath 2009: 7–10).
- 31.
The average is 48/100 days (Reddy and Upendranath 2009).
- 32.
- 33.
Gooptu and Harriss-White (2001).
- 34.
Da Corta and Venkateshwarlu (1999).
- 35.
- 36.
- 37.
- 38.
See for one example http://lalgarh.wordpress.com/2009/12/13/all-india-convention-against-sez-land-grabbing-displacement/ (last access: 20 May 2010).
- 39.
Rajalakshmi (2008).
- 40.
Zizek (2008).
- 41.
- 42.
Baruah (2008).
- 43.
- 44.
- 45.
Sahni (2009).
- 46.
Harriss-White et al. (2009).
- 47.
Baruah (2008):16.
- 48.
The Inner Line is as much a colonial artefact as the classification of hills and plains tribes. It was originally established in 1873 and has since been challenged.
- 49.
Jim Scott 2000 (in Baruah 2008: 17).
- 50.
Harriss-White et al. (2009).
- 51.
See Harriss-White et al. 2009 for evidence of the state’s denial of private property.
- 52.
Sahni (2009).
- 53.
Harriss-White (2002).
- 54.
What Benedict Anderson has called the “imagined community.”
- 55.
Held (1995).
- 56.
van Steenbergen (1996).
- 57.
E.g. the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
- 58.
Parekh (1997).
- 59.
Sengupta et al. (2008), NCEUS (2008).
- 60.
Seventy percent NRIs in the Gulf region are semi- or unskilled labour—men in construction and women in domestic service, neither of which sectors have any political clout.
- 61.
In medicine, engineering, law, finance, as well as information technology.
- 62.
These migrants interact with the domestic Indian economy through remittances (the greatest are from the Gulf not from the two million carefully screened entrants to the United States (Pattanaik 2007). North American NRIs have political clout in their destination country and active promotion in India.
- 63.
See Kim 2008, on India’s protection of domestic capital in the liquor sector.
- 64.
See Sahni (2009).
- 65.
And like so many low status economic organisations within India (Basile 2009).
- 66.
See Jaffrelot (1999).
- 67.
See Fernandez 2008, for the technologies of bureaucratic power which account for such paradoxes. In the budgets for 2008–2010 allocations for “Inclusive Development” have all increased. In 2010, that for Minorities is planned at Rs 2.6 kcr; for the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment Rs 4.5kcr; pensions for the unorganised sector Rs 0.1 kcr; womens’ self-help groups Rs 0.4 kcr; social security for the unorganised sector Rs 1kcr; backward regions Rs 7.3kcr; rural and urban housing Rs 10 and 5.4kcr respectively; rural infrastructure Rs 48kcr; the NREGA Rs 40kcr; rural development Rs 66kcr; health Rs 22 kcr and education Rs 31 kcr. The social sector stood at 37 % of total plan expenditure of Rs 373kcr and rural infrastructure at 25 %. “Inclusive development is an act of faith” (P. Mukherjee 2010, para 72). But Indian growth continues to be polarising. Nearly 80 % of the population continues to live on less than USD 2 per day. According to Sengupta et al. (2008), while in 1993–1994 the poor were 732 m out of a total population of 894 m, 10 years later they were 836 m out of 1,090 m—a decline of only 5 % points. Among the poor 85 % of Muslims and 87 % of Scheduled Castes and Tribes live on under USD 2 per day.
- 68.
BBC News: Thursday, 6 September, 2001, 08:35 GMT 09:35 UK Indian groups raise caste question.
- 69.
For instance, a team of Conservative Party MPs prepared a report on discrimination against Dalits in India to be followed by a similar report from the Labour Party. See also the Dalit Solidarity Network UK. Dalit Watch UK holds regular meetings in Portcullis House, the annexe of the House of Commons, under the patronage of Labour MPs, mobilising public opinion to discrimination against Dalits in British companies investing in India.
- 70.
- 71.
Although Nayak shows in this volume that tribal Orissan society had a notion of citizenship, it is not one of economic citizenship.
- 72.
Even the NREGA, which has been interpreted as a right, provides a right to 100 days of work and has been implemented unevenly with under half the resources it needs, NCEUS 2008.
- 73.
Mitra in this volume.
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Appendix : Institutions supporting economics of market and politics of democracy
Appendix : Institutions supporting economics of market and politics of democracy
Institutions supporting economics of markets | Institutions mandated by politics of democracy | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Market creating | Market regulating institutions | Market legitimising institutions | Institutions giving a call for inclusive development | Watch dog institutions | |
Withdrawal of state | To attract new players | National Integration Council/National Judicial Council/National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions National Minority Commission National Commission for Backward Classes Act National Commission for Women Bifurcation of National Schedule Caste and National Schedule Tribe Commission | |||
Foreign Direct Investment Policy 2006 (started with Industrial Policy of 1991) | Foreign Investment Implementation Authority (FIIA) | The Central Electricity Regulatory Commission | National Investment Fund | National Advisory Council (now defunct) | |
Board for Reconstruction of Public Sector Enterprise (Ministry of Disinvestment) | Committee on Infrastructure | The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India | National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector | Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies | |
The Fiscal Responsibility and the Budget Management Bill | Public Private Partnership | National Knowledge Commission | National Farmers Commission/Report of the Expert Group on Agricultural Indebtedness/Reconstituted National Rainfed Area Authority | National Rural Employment Guarantee Act | |
Right to Education Bill | Proposed Equal Opportunity Commission and Diversity Index | ||||
National Rural health Mission | |||||
Proposed Food Security Act | |||||
Special Economic Zones (New Model of Industrialisation) | Investment Commission of India | Security Exchange Board of India | The Schedules Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forests Rights) Act, 2006 | ||
National Manufacturing Competitiveness and Investment Commission | Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority | Right to Information | |||
Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission | Prime Minister Economic Advisory Council | National Urban Street Vendor Policy |
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Harriss-White, B., Prakash, A., Mishra, D. (2013). Globalisation, Economic Citizenship, and India’s Inclusive Developementalism. In: Mitra, S. (eds) Citizenship as Cultural Flow. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34568-5_10
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