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Best Practise Proposal for Living Organ Donation in the European Union

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Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe

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Abstract

A harmonisation of the national regulations for LOD is desired. In the last chapter, the examination found, however, that the European Union is only competent to pass soft law with respect to the requirements of LOD. The potential content of such a (harmonised) regulation will now be worked out in a best practise proposal for LOD.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cf. Evans, Vol. 15 Journal of Medical Ethics 17, 19 (1989); Fateh-Moghadam, (2011); cf. Radcliffe Richards, in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2011), p. 41.

  2. 2.

    Cf. Beck/Burchhard/Fateh-Moghadam, in Beck/Burchhard/Fateh-Moghadam (ed.) (2011), p. 5; Zweigert/Kötz (1996), p. 16.

  3. 3.

    Cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 41; cf. Prechern-Hauptmann, in Höfling (ed.) (2008), p. 97; Wollenschläger, in Müller-Graff/Schmahl/Skouris (ed.) (2011), p. 447.

  4. 4.

    See Joint Network on European Private Law (2012).

  5. 5.

    Cf. von Bar/Zimmermann (2002), p. XXVIII; cf. Meyer (2007), p. 149; Nielsen, in Price/Akveld (ed.) (1997), p. 75; cf. Shinkawa, in Riesenhuber/Takayama (ed.) (2006), p. 389; cf. Zweigert/Kötz (1996), p. 16.

  6. 6.

    Sec. 228 German Criminal Code.

  7. 7.

    Fateh-Moghadam (2008), p. 181.

  8. 8.

    See, also to the following, Marmor, Vol. 7 Health Economics, Policy and Law 19, 19 (2012); see also Klein, Vol. 69 The Milbank Quarterly 275–291 (1991); Marmor/Freeman/Okma, Vol. 7 Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis 331, 333 (2005).

  9. 9.

    Marmor, Vol. 7 Health Economics, Policy and Law 19, 20 (2012).

  10. 10.

    Cf. Meyer (2007), p. 149.

  11. 11.

    Commission of the European Communities (2008).

  12. 12.

    Commission on European Contract Law (2006).

  13. 13.

    Klein clarifies that collecting information means to learn about other countries, while reflecting on that information means to actually learn from their experience (Klein, in Marmor/Freeman/Okma (ed.) (2009), p. 305).

  14. 14.

    Fateh-Moghadam (2011), p. 1 ff.; With respect to indirect LOD and unspecified LOD, “the barriers reported most commonly were that these donations were illegal in the country or thought to be unethical and could not be justified” (EULOD WP 2 (2012), DOW: Deliverable 4, p. 12).

  15. 15.

    Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 26.

  16. 16.

    See e.g. Donnelly/Price (ed.) (1997), p. 35. This became apparent in the legal comparison in chapter 3, but is also clarified by the inclusion in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (Art. 3 2. (a) of the Charter requires that the free and informed consent of the person concerned must be respected in particular in the fields of medicine and biology).

  17. 17.

    P. 28 ff.

  18. 18.

    P. 25 ff.

  19. 19.

    Cf. Canellopoulou-Bottis, Vol. 7 European Journal of Health Law 427, 433 (2000); cf. Spickhoff, Vol. 45 Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 65, 67 (2012).

  20. 20.

    Canellopoulou-Bottis, Vol. 7 European Journal of Health Law 427, 433 (2000).

  21. 21.

    Cf. Childress/Liverman (2006), p. 270 f.; Kasiske et al., Vol. 7 Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 2288, 2296 (1996).

  22. 22.

    Information from T. Gutmann.

  23. 23.

    Cf. Commission of the European Communities (2008).

  24. 24.

    Cf. Lilie/Krüger, Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 787, 788 (2010); cf. Price (2000), p. 289.

  25. 25.

    Cf. Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 93.

  26. 26.

    Wright et al., Vol. 47 Canadian Journal of Surgery 408, 412 (2004).

  27. 27.

    Bock (1999), p. 153; Schreiber (2004), p. 73.

  28. 28.

    Schreiber (2004), p. 73.

  29. 29.

    Bock (1999), p. 152 f.

  30. 30.

    Nielsen, in Price/Akveld (ed.) (1997), p. 75.

  31. 31.

    Bakker, in Price/Akveld (ed.) (1997), p. 28.

  32. 32.

    Hodson, Vol. 26 Journal of Medical Ethics 419, 420 (2000).

  33. 33.

    Dickens/Fluss/King, in Chapman/Deierhoi/Wright (ed.) (1997), p. 98; cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 49; Pfeiffer (2004), p. 45.

  34. 34.

    This has been discussed at the 2011 ELPAT-Working Group on Legal Boundaries Conference in Berlin.

  35. 35.

    Cf. Gutmann/Gerok, in Collins et al. (ed.) (1997), p. 320 f.; cf. Gutmann/Land, Vol. 384 Langenbeck‘s archives of surgery 515, 516 (1999).

  36. 36.

    Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 95.

  37. 37.

    Fateh-Moghadam et al. in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 161.

  38. 38.

    Bock (1999), p. 144; Schreiber (2004), p. 76.

  39. 39.

    Bock (1999), p. 145 f.; Edelmann, Vol. 50 Versicherungsrecht 1065, 1067 (1999); Gutmann, Vol. 15 Medizinrecht 147, 151 (1997); Spickhoff, Vol. 59 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2075, 2075 (2006).

  40. 40.

    Nickel/Schmidt-Preisigke/Sengler (2001), p. 109.

  41. 41.

    Land, Vol. 2 Transplant International 168, 170 (1989). See also Principle (23) Directive 2010/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on standards of quality and safety of human organs intended for transplantation.

  42. 42.

    Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 33.

  43. 43.

    Mehrabi et al., Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 794, 800 (2010); Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 97 f.

  44. 44.

    Mehrabi et al., Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 794, 800 (2010).

  45. 45.

    Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 98.

  46. 46.

    Spickhoff, Vol. 45 Zeitschrift für Rechtspolitik 65, 68 (2012).

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

  48. 48.

    Cf. O’Neill, Vol. 29 Journal of Medical Ethics 4, 6 (2003).

  49. 49.

    Ibid.

  50. 50.

    Cf. Jowsey/Schneekloth, Vol. 22 Transplantation Reviews 192, 195 (2008); cf. Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 101; cf. Valapour, Vol. 22 Transplantation Reviews 196, 197 (2008); cf. Eyal, in Zalta (ed.) (2011).

  51. 51.

    Deutsch, in Spickhoff (ed.) (2011), p. 6; Spickhoff, Vol. 59 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2075, 2076 (2006); Spickhoff, Vol. 54 World Medical Journal 9, 10 (2008); Spickhoff, Vol. 64 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 1651, 1654 (2011).

  52. 52.

    Spickhoff, Vol. 59 Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2075, 2076 (2006).

  53. 53.

    Cf. German Federal Supreme Court [Bundesgerichtshof], 7 February, 1984, Case No. VI ZR 174/82, in Vol. 35 Versicherungsrecht Rechtsprechung 465, 467 (1984); cf. German Federal Supreme Court [Bundesgerichtshof], 1 January, 1985, Case No. VI ZR 15/83, in Vol. 36 Versicherungsrecht Rechtsprechung 361, 362 (1985).

  54. 54.

    Cf. Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 33.

  55. 55.

    Esser, in Höfling (ed.) (2003), p. 227; Lilie/Krüger, Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 787, 788 (2010); Weigend/Zielinska, Vol. 14 Medizinrecht 445, 448 (1996).

  56. 56.

    Cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 116.

  57. 57.

    Cf. Fateh-Moghadam et al., Vol. 22 Medizinrecht 19, 30 (2004); Gutmann (2006), p. 59.

  58. 58.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 59.

  59. 59.

    Principle (23) Directive 2010/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on standards of quality and safety of human organs intended for transplantation.

  60. 60.

    Ibid., Art. 15.

  61. 61.

    Cf. American Medical Association, Vol. 284 The Journal of the American Medical Association 2919, 2920 (2000); Donnelly/Price (ed.) (1997), p. 52 f.; cf. O’Hara/Bramstedt/Flechner/Goldfarb, Vol. 17 Progress in Transplantation 180, 181 (2007).

  62. 62.

    Hilhorst et al., Vol. 24 Transplant International 1164, 1165 (2011).

  63. 63.

    WHO Guiding Principles on Human Cell, Tissue and Organ Transplantation, 2008, Guiding Principle 4.

  64. 64.

    Leipold (2008), p. 127.

  65. 65.

    Cf. Cheyette, Vol. 41 Boston College Law Review 465, 468 (2000); cf. Eisenhardt (2007), p. 94. The protection of minors and mentally incapacitated adults from themselves is considered legitimate and should not be equated with hard paternalism (Fateh-Moghadam, in Fateh-Moghadam/Sellmaier/Vossenkuhl (ed.) (2010), p. 26).

  66. 66.

    Cf. Gutmann/Gerok, in Collins et al. (ed.) (1997), p. 319; cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 55.

  67. 67.

    Swiss Dispatch of 12. September 2001 on a Federal Law on Transplantation of Organs, Tissues and Cells, p. 145.

  68. 68.

    Cf. Gutmann/Gerok, in Collins et al. (ed.) (1997), p. 319; cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 55.

  69. 69.

    Cf. Gutmann/Gerok, in Collins et al. (ed.) (1997), p. 319; cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 55.

  70. 70.

    Fateh-Moghadam (2008), p. 204 ff.

  71. 71.

    Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 20.

  72. 72.

    Ibid., p. 157.

  73. 73.

    Childress/Liverman (2006), p. 270; Guillod/Perrenoud, in Gutmann et al. (ed.) (2004), p. 158.

  74. 74.

    Information from A. Lennerling; information from C. Möller.

  75. 75.

    Beauchamp/Childress (2001), p. 113; Bechstein/Moench, Vol. 24 Transplant International 1162, 1163 (2011); Potts/Evans, in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2008), p. 377.

  76. 76.

    Dreier, in Dreier (ed.) (2004), before Art. 1 GG at 75, Art. 2 II at 20; Gessmann (ed.) (2009), p. 72; Hügli/Lübcke (ed.) (1997), p. 71; cf. Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 25; Pöltner (2002), p. 94; Sachs, in Sachs (ed.) (2011), before Art. 1 at 43.

  77. 77.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050 (2005), p. 34; Forkel, Vol. 23 JURA 73, 73 (2001); Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 110.

  78. 78.

    Health Council of the Netherlands (2003); Hilhorst et al., in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2011), p. 380; Matas et al., in Gutmann et al. (ed.) (2004), p. 195; Patel/Chadha/Papalois, Vol. 3 Experimental and Clinical Transplantation 181, 183 (2011); Veatch (2000), p. 189.

  79. 79.

    Cf. Ross, Vol. 30 The Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 440, 442 (2002).

  80. 80.

    Ibid.

  81. 81.

    Cf. Patel/Chadha/Papalois, Vol. 3 Experimental and Clinical Transplantation 181, 181 (2011); cf. Persson et al., in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2008), p. 271; cf. Roff, Vol. 33 Journal of Medical Ethics 437, 439 (2007).

  82. 82.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050 (2005), p. 74; Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, Resolution CM/Res(2008)4 on adult-to-adult living donor liver transplantation, 4b; cf. den Hartogh (2008), p. 83; World Health Organization, WHO Guiding Principles on Human Organ Transplantation, Guiding Principle 3.

  83. 83.

    Hilhorst et al., Vol. 24 Transplant International 1164, 1167 (2011).

  84. 84.

    Bundestag printed paper 13/4355 (1996), p. 20; see also German Federal Constitutional Court [Bundesverfassungsgericht], 11 August, 1999, Case No. 1 BvR 218/98, at 3b.

  85. 85.

    Cf. German Federal Constitutional Court [Bundesverfassungsgericht], 11 August, 1999, Case No. 1 BvR 218/98, at 25; Hilhorst, Vol. 8 Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 197, 200 (2005); Landolt et al., Vol. 76 Transplantation 1437, 1441 (2003); cf. Massey et al., Vol. 10 American Journal of Transplantation 1445, 1445 (2010); cf. Spital, Vol. 71 Transplantation 1061, 1063 (2001).

  86. 86.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 28 ff.

  87. 87.

    Cf. Choudhry, Vol. 29 Journal of Medical Ethics 169, 169 (2003); Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 63; Price (2000), p. 328; cf. Sanner/Dew/Busschbach, in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2008), p. 194 f.

  88. 88.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050 (2005), p. 40, 42 f., 48, 73 f.; cf. Schroth, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 82, who immediately after presenting this argument invalidates it.

  89. 89.

    Cf. Evans, Vol. 15 Journal of Medical Ethics 17, 18, (1989); German Federal Constitutional Court [Bundesverfassungsgericht], 11 August, 1999, Case No. 1 BvR 218/98, at 3b.

  90. 90.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050 (2005), p. 42, 73 f.

  91. 91.

    Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 16, p. 121 f.; cf. Schreiber, in Rittner/Paul (ed.) (2005), p. 64.

  92. 92.

    Danovitch, in Weimar/Bos/Busschbach (ed.) (2011), p. 392; cf. Gutmann, Vol. 15 Medizinrecht 147, 150 (1997); cf. Swiss Dispatch of 12. September 2001 on a Federal Law on Transplantation of Organs, Tissues and Cells, p. 98.

  93. 93.

    de Klerk (2010), p. 14; Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 118; Veatch (2000), p. 187.

  94. 94.

    Cf. Hilhorst et al., Vol. 24 Transplant International 1164, 1165 (2011).

  95. 95.

    Cf. Gutmann et al., in Terasaki (ed.) (1995), p. 356; cf. Gutmann (2011), p. 5; Land, Vol. 2 Transplant International 168, 173 (1989) with regard to spouse-to-spouse donation.

  96. 96.

    von Bar/Zimmermann (2002), p. XXIX.

  97. 97.

    P. 104 f.

  98. 98.

    Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 161.

  99. 99.

    Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 76.

  100. 100.

    Childress/Liverman (2006), p. 270; Guillod/Perrenoud, in Gutmann et al. (ed.) (2004), p. 158.

  101. 101.

    Cf. Gutmann/Land, Vol. 384 Langenbeck‘s archives of surgery 515, 516 (1999); Schutzeichel (2002), p. 36.

  102. 102.

    Cf. Beauchamp/Childress (2001), p. 63; cf. Gutmann/Schroth, in Oduncu/Schroth/Vossenkuhl (ed.) (2003), p. 282.

  103. 103.

    Gutmann, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2006), p. 220.

  104. 104.

    Edelmann, Vol. 50 Versicherungsrecht 1065, 1068 (1999).

  105. 105.

    Esser, in Höfling (ed.) (2003), p. 201; Gutmann, in Schroth et al. (ed.) (2005), Sec. 8 at 22; cf. Land/Gutmann, Vol. 35 Transplantation Proceedings 926, 928 (2003); Lilie/Krüger, Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 787, 787 (2010); Norba (2009), p. 60; Schreiber (2004), p. 102; Teubner (2006), p. 5; Ugowski (1998), p. 22.

  106. 106.

    Edelmann, Vol. 50 Versicherungsrecht 1065, 1068 (1999); Gutmann, Vol. 15 Medizinrecht 147, 152 (1997); Gutmann (2011), p. 9.

  107. 107.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 74; Gutmann, in Middel et al. (ed.) (2010), p. 33.

  108. 108.

    Cf. Gutmann et al., in Terasaki (ed.) (1995), p. 356 ff.; cf. Gutmann (2011), p. 6; Gutmann (2011), p. 9.

  109. 109.

    Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 82; Gutmann (2006), p. 84.

  110. 110.

    Cf. Schreiber, in Rittner/Paul (ed.) (2005), p. 63.

  111. 111.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 78.

  112. 112.

    Cf. Gutmann et al., in Terasaki (ed.) (1995), p. 356 ff.; cf. Gutmann (2011), p. 6.

  113. 113.

    Cf. Manyalich et al., Vol. 41 Transplantation Proceedings 2021, 2022 (2009).

  114. 114.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 49 f.

  115. 115.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 49 f.; Wagner/Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 56 Soziale Welt 73, 79 (2005).

  116. 116.

    Cf. Gutmann et al., in Terasaki (ed.) (1995), p. 356.

  117. 117.

    Sec. 8 III 2 Act on the donation, removal and transplantation of organs.

  118. 118.

    Ibid.

  119. 119.

    Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 21 Medizinrecht 245, 246 (2003); Nickel/Schmidt-Preisigke/Sengler (2001), p. 114.

  120. 120.

    Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 21 Medizinrecht 245, 254 (2003); Fateh-Moghadam et al., Vol. 22 Medizinrecht 82, 90 (2003); Wagner/Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 56 Soziale Welt 73, 88 (2005).

  121. 121.

    Lilie, Enquete Kommission (2004), p. 9.

  122. 122.

    Cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 55 f.; cf. Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 21 Medizinrecht 245, 245 (2003).

  123. 123.

    Cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 55 f.

  124. 124.

    Cf. Fateh-Moghadam, Vol. 21 Medizinrecht 245, 253 (2003); cf. Gutmann/Schroth (2002), p. 35.

  125. 125.

    Cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 56.

  126. 126.

    See Fateh-Moghadam, in Fateh-Moghadam/Sellmaier/Vossenkuhl (ed.) (2010), p. 26–48.

  127. 127.

    Information from B. Fateh-Moghadam.

  128. 128.

    Cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 62 f.; cf. Rixen, in Höfling (ed.) (2008), p. 76 f.

  129. 129.

    Cf. Rixen, in Höfling (ed.) (2008), p. 76 f.

  130. 130.

    Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 16.

  131. 131.

    Sec. 13 ff. Human Tissue Act; information from D. Price; Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 16.

  132. 132.

    Information from C. Rudge.

  133. 133.

    Information from K. Rigg.

  134. 134.

    Information from C. Rudge.

  135. 135.

    National data protection regulations must be complied with.

  136. 136.

    Art. 29 (1) Law of the Transplantation of Organs, Tissues and Cells.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., Art. 29 (2).

  138. 138.

    Information from M. Bos.

  139. 139.

    See e.g. The Ethics Committee of the Transplantation Society, Vol. 78 Transplantation 491–492 (2004); Pruett, et al., Vol. 81 Transplantation 1386–87 (2006).

  140. 140.

    Transplant Living (2012).

  141. 141.

    Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network (United Network for Organ Sharing (2012)).

  142. 142.

    U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (2009).

  143. 143.

    Transplant Living (2012).

  144. 144.

    Information from M. Bos.

  145. 145.

    Gutmann (2011), p. 6 f.

  146. 146.

    Ibid., p. 3.

  147. 147.

    Cf. Gutmann et al., in Terasaki (ed.) (1995), p. 356 ff.

  148. 148.

    Cf. Gutmann (2011), p. 6 f.

  149. 149.

    Cf. Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 143.

  150. 150.

    Esser, in Höfling (ed.) (2003), p. 231.

  151. 151.

    Cf. Joint Working Party of The British Transplantation Society and The Renal Association (2011), p. 184.

  152. 152.

    Art. 15 4. Directive 2010/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on standards of quality and safety of human organs intended for transplantation.

  153. 153.

    Information from M. Bos.

  154. 154.

    Cf. Art. 15 3. Directive 2010/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on standards of quality and safety of human organs intended for transplantation; cf. Eigler, Vol. 122 Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 1398, 1401 (1997); cf. Commission of the European Communities (2008); cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 85.

  155. 155.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 85.

  156. 156.

    Eigler, Vol. 122 Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 1398, 1401 (1997).

  157. 157.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 85.

  158. 158.

    Cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 85, who mentions this with regard to the German Act on the donation, removal and transplantation of organs.

  159. 159.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050, p. 56; Gutmann (2006), p. 85.

  160. 160.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050, p. 54 f.; Gutmann (2006), p. 86.

  161. 161.

    Bundestag printed paper 15/5050, p. 54 f.

  162. 162.

    Delmonico et al., Vol. 378 The Lancet 1414, 1414 (2011).

  163. 163.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 86.

  164. 164.

    Ibid.

  165. 165.

    Cf. Art. 15 3. Directive 2010/53/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on standards of quality and safety of human organs intended for transplantation.

  166. 166.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 89; Neft, Vol. 20 Neue Zeitschrift für Sozialrecht 566, 566 (2011); cf. Sterner et al., Vol. 21 Pediatric Nephrology 1357, 1357 f. (2006).

  167. 167.

    Cf. EULOD WP 2 (2012), DOW: Deliverable 4, p. 14; Gutmann (2006), p. 98; cf. Interessengemeinschaft Nierenlebendspende (2012).

  168. 168.

    Lilie/Krüger, Vol. 81 Der Chirurg 787, 792 (2010).

  169. 169.

    Gutmann (2006), p. 98; cf. Interessengemeinschaft Nierenlebendspende (2012).

  170. 170.

    Art. 14, 1 Federal Act on the Transplantation of Organs, Tissues and Cells.

  171. 171.

    Ibid., Art. 14, 2.

  172. 172.

    This has been presented in chapter “Comparative Analysis of European Transplant Laws Regarding Living Organ Donation”.

  173. 173.

    Ibid.

  174. 174.

    Ibid.

  175. 175.

    Cf. Bundestag printed paper 15/5050 (2005), p. 76 f.; cf. Gutmann (2006), p. 99 f.

  176. 176.

    EULOD WP 2 (2012), DOW: Deliverable 4, p. 9 ff.

  177. 177.

    Art. 14, 2 Federal Act on the Transplantation of Organs, Tissues and Cells.

  178. 178.

    Cf. ibid., Art. 14, 4.

  179. 179.

    Ibid., Art. 14, 3.

  180. 180.

    Cf. Gutmann (2011), p. 8.

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    Leonie Lopp

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Lopp, L. (2013). Best Practise Proposal for Living Organ Donation in the European Union. In: Regulations Regarding Living Organ Donation in Europe. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-33799-4_7

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