Pharmaceutical Patents, the Right to Health, and Constitutional Supremacy in Sub-Saharan Africa

Adusei, Poku

doi:10.1007/978-3-642-32515-1_6

Poku Adusei²

704 Accesses

Abstract

The last half-century has spawned a considerable debate about human rights and its regime complex. This regime complex consists of a web of interlocking national laws, constitutions, customs and practices, judicial decisions, and international and regional agreements regarding human rights. Also prominent in the human rights rhetoric is a growing body of academic literature describing human right norms as: jus cogens, global morality, obligations erga omnes, universal entitlements, the ‘veritable Magna Carta’ of humanity, and the inherent dignity and worth of humans. In legal circles, the concept of human rights has attained a high priority status in the hierarchy of international legal norms as compared to private interests in pharmaceuticals. Indeed, human rights norms are universal ideals that transcend any limitations and inadequacies associated with the western concept of property ownership. Equally, the concept of human rights is immune to the criticisms levelled at the globalized patent regime. In consequence, this chapter aims to emphasize that access to medicine will be enhanced by relying on the universal ideals/norms from other disciplines such as human rights law to regulate the grant of pharmaceutical patents.

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Notes

1.
See Krasner (1983) [defining regime complex as sets of implicit and explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given area].
2.
For a plethora of pro-human right metaphors see generally: Cann (2004).
3.
Other terms commonly used in the literature to describe health as a human right include ‘the right to healthcare’, ‘the right to medical care’, and ‘the right to health protection’. In this book, I use the terms: ‘right to health’ and ‘right to healthcare’ interchangeably to describe the protection of health as a human right. Whereas the former term is mostly used in international human rights treaties, the latter term is more realistic in terms of implementation. The right to health also encapsulates the right to access to medicines.
4.
See Correa (1999). At 82, Correa notes: “there is no doubt that patents lead to prices higher than those prevailing without protection. The generation of monopolistic rents is, in fact, the very purpose and essence of the patent system.”
5.
The UN has put it beyond doubt that access to medication in the context of epidemics is an essential human right: see, UN Commission of Human Rights, Access to Medication in the Context of Pandemics Such as HIV/AIDS, UN DoC E/CN.4/RES/2001/33 (2001). Essential medicines are defines by the WHO as those medicines that satisfy the priority healthcare needs of the majority of the population. Such medicines must be available at all times, in adequate amounts and at an affordable price. See WHO (2004).
6.
Quadir (2009) at 444.
7.
See Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 756.
8.
See Gruskin (2006).
9.
See Hestermeyer (2007) at 203.
10.
Adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948: UNGA Res 217A (III). As a General Assembly Resolution the UDHR is hortatory. Nevertheless, scholars agree that the UDHR exerts a binding effect of customary international law.
11.
Adopted on 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force on 3 January 1976).
12.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force on 23 March 1976).
13.
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 27 June 1981, 21 ILM 58 (entered into force on 21 October 1986) [African Charter or Banjul Charter].
14.
See Articles 30, 31 & 41 of the African Charter.
15.
Helfer (2003) at 51 [Helfer, “Human Rights and IP”].
16.
See Koopman (2008) at 541.
17.
Mgbeoji (2006) at 42.
18.
See Chapman (1998) at 3.
19.
Okediji (2003) at 345.
20.
Gervais (2008) at 4 [Gervais, “IP and Human Rights”].
21.
Helfer (2007) at 1017 [Helfer, “Toward a Human Rights Framework for IP”].
22.
Giovanetti and Matthews (2005), quoted in Yu (2006–2007) at 1084 [Yu, “Reconceptualizing IP Interests”].
23.
Cullet (2007) at 406.
24.
See the Preamble to the World Trade Organization’s (WTO’s) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (adopted on 15 April 1994 and entered into force on 1 January 1995) 33 ILM 81.
25.
This view is influenced by the US patent jurisprudence; the US Constitution protects inventions under its Article 1 s 8 cl 8.
26.
On this mischaracterization see Amani (2009) at 261, citing Keayla (1998) at 263.
27.
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No.17: The Right of Everyone to Benefit from the Protection of the Moral and Material Interests Resulting from Any Scientific, Literary or Artistic Production of Which He Is the Author [Art. 15(1)(c)], para 18, 22–24 & 47, 12 January 2006, UN DoC E/C12/GC/17 [ESCR Committee or CESCR].
28.
See Article 15(1)(a)(b) of the ICESCR.
29.
See Drahos (1999a); Drahos (1999b).
30.
For a thorough discussion of the drafting history of the UDHR and ICESCR, see: Yu (2006–2007), supra note 22.
31.
See e.g. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No.17: The Right of Everyone to Benefit from the Protection of the Moral and Material Interests Resulting from Any Scientific, Literary or Artistic Production of Which He Is the Author [Art. 15(1)(c)], paras 2 & 7, 12 January 2006, UN DoC E/C12/GC/17. See generally Yu (2008a). Gervais (2008), supra note 20 at 7.
32.
Cornides (2004) at 138.
33.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1155 UNTS 331 (23 May 1969) (entered into force on 27 January 1980) [Vienna Convention].
34.
See Articles 30 & 31 of the Vienna Convention.
35.
Yu (2006–2007), supra note 22 at 1127.
36.
Ostergard (2003) at 28–29; Ostergard (1999).
37.
Helfer (2003), supra note 15 at 48.
38.
Oguamanam (2008) at 32.
39.
See Pauwelyn (2001) at 539 [Pauwelyn, “Role of International Law in WTO”].
40.
UN Economic and Social Council, Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Intellectual Property Rights and Human Rights, Res 2000/7 UN DoC E/CN.4/SuB2/RES/2000/7, para 11 (17 August 2007) [UN Sub-Commission Resolution 2000/7 or Sub-Commission Resolution].
41.
See Helfer (2003), supra note 15 at 48.
42.
Amani (2007) at 1 (abstract).
43.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 330.
44.
See generally, Fassbender (1998), Macdonald (1999), Reisman (1993), and Schluter (1973).
45.
See Article 103 of the UN Charter.
46.
Resolution 2000/7, para 3.
47.
Resolution 2000/7, para 4.
48.
Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy: Report of the UK Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, (London, September 2002) at 7, online: http://www.iprcommission.org/graphic/documents/final_report.htm.
49.
Chander and Sunder (2007) at 578.
50.
See Weeramantry (1999).
51.
Helfer (2007), supra note 21 at 1017.
52.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 14.
53.
See Abbott (2005) at 85.
54.
United States – Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline, WTO DoC WT/DS2/AB/R, para III (B) 1996.
55.
On this point see Pauwelyn (2001), supra 39 at 577.
56.
Stiglitz (2008) at 1717.
57.
Intellectual Property Rights and Human Rights: Report of the Secretary-General, Commission on Human Rights, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, UN DoC E/CN.4/SuB2/2001/12 (2001) 8.
58.
Howse and Mutua (2000).
59.
See Attaran and Gillespie-White (2001) [Attaran & Gillespie-White, “Access to AIDS Treatment in Africa”]; Gervais (2008), supra note 20 at 20.
60.
See Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 150.
61.
Attaran and Gillespie-White (2001), supra note 59 at 1890.
62.
On this point see Outterson (2005) at 255.
63.
On this point see Noehrenberg (2006) at 173, 183. It bears emphasizing that Noehrenberg is a Director at the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers & Associations.
64.
Gervais (2008), supra note 20 at 20.
65.
See e.g. para 3 of the Doha Declaration; Para 17 of the Doha Ministerial Declaration.
66.
US Government Accountability Office, Intellectual Property: US Trade Policy Guidance on WTO Declaration on Access to Medicines May Need Clarification (GAO, 2007) at 8.
67.
See US GAO, ibid at 13.
68.
On this point see Babar et al. (2007).
69.
Srivastava and Satyanarayana (2009) at 672.
70.
See Venezuela’s 6 August 1999 Communication to the TRIPS Council, WT/GC/W/282.
71.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 11.
72.
Stiglitz (2008), supra note 56 at 1701.
73.
New (2009).
74.
See “Dutch Seizure of HIV Drugs Highlights Patent Friction” Financial Times Thursday 5 March 2009. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/0a0a0a9e-0928-11de-b8b0-0000779fd2aChtml?nclick_check=1.
75.
For information on this anti-counterfeiting partnership see online: http://www.who.int/impact/en/.
76.
Outterson (2009).
77.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 297.
78.
Hill and Johnson (2004) at 7.
79.
See e.g. Outterson (2005), supra note 62 at 257.
80.
Drahos (2010) at 2.
81.
See Article 70.8 and 70.9 of the TRIPS Agreement.
82.
Drahos (2008).
83.
See Shah (1999) at 442 [Shah, “Guaranteeing the Human Right to Health”].
84.
See CESCR General Comment No. 14, paras 33 & 35.
85.
See Article 3 of the UDHR.
86.
See Article 22 of the UDHR.
87.
See Article 27(1) of the UDHR.
88.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 185.
89.
See Article 12(2)(c) of the ICESCR.
90.
See Article 12(2)(d) of the ICESCR.
91.
See Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 839.
92.
See The Nature of States parties Obligations, General Comments.
93.
See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 14 (2000). The contents of these elements have received further elaborations in paragraph 12 of this General Comment [General Comment No. 14].
94.
See General Comment No. 14, para 48.
95.
Joseph (2003) at 438–439 [Joseph, “Pharmaceutical Corporations and Access to Drugs”].
96.
See General Comment No. 14, para 50.
97.
See General Comment No. 14.
98.
See General Comment No. 14, para 10.
99.
Helfer (2007), supra note 21 at 988.
100.
Constitution of the WHO, 14 UNTS 185, Preamble, online at http://www.who.int/about/en/.
101.
See Declaration of Alma-Ata: Health for All, Series 1 (Geneva: WHO, 1978).
102.
See Preamble of the WHO Constitution.
103.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 219.
104.
Chandra (2010) at 186.
105.
UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 6/16, para 5 (27 July 1982).
106.
Nnamuchi (2008) at 10.
107.
See Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 116; Barbosa et al. (2007) at 132. Article 53 of the Vienna Convention defines jus cogens as “a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character.”
108.
For a discussion of these other human rights documents, see Kinney (2008) at 342–344; Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 121.
109.
This Optional Protocol is annexed to the UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/63/117 (10 December 2008). Although the Protocol is opened for signature, it is not yet in force [ICESCR Protocol].
110.
See Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, G.A res. 2200A (XXI), 21 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 59, UN Doc A/6316 (1966), 999 UNTS 302, entered into force 23 March 1976 [ICCPR Protocol].
111.
Article 16(1) of the African Charter.
112.
Article 16(2) of the African Charter.
113.
See Article 1 of the African Charter.
114.
Preamble to the African Charter.
115.
Communication No. 155/1996, ACHPR/COMMM/A044/1 (27 May 2002) [SERAC Case].
116.
See paras 53–67 of the SERAC Case.
117.
Communication Submitted Against The Gambia 241/01 Purohit and Moore/The Gambia 16th Annual Activity Report, ISBN 9983-9907-1-7.
118.
See also Nwobike (2005).
119.
This Protocol was adopted by the Assembly of Heads of State at its 34th session in June 1998 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso and came into force on 25 January 2004.
120.
See Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS Treaty). ECOWAS members are implementing a West African Regional Programme for Health (PRSAO) to build national capacities for the fight against epidemics and also coordinate health policies.
121.
See Treaty of the Southern African Development Community (SADC Treaty), Article 4: [SADC and its member states shall act in accordance with the principles of human rights], Article 5: [The objectives of SADC shall be to combat HIV/AIDS and other deadly or communicable diseases].
122.
See East African Community Treaty (EAC Treaty), Articles 81(2), 117, and 118.
123.
See Article 12 of the Charter of Fundamental Social Rights in SADC, 2003.
124.
Entered into force 14 August 2004.
125.
Protocol A/P1/7/91 (amended by Supplementary Protocol A/SP.1/01/05) [granting mandate to the ECOWAS court to determine cases of human rights violation that occur in ECOWAS member states].
126.
Toebes (2006) at 108.
127.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 135.
128.
Hestermeyer (2007), ibid at 131–132.
129.
See The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis & Malaria, online: http://www.globalfundatm.org/index.html.
130.
See World Health Organization, Global Public Goods for Health, online at http://www.emro.who.int/cbi/pdf/Global%20Public%20Goods%20for%20Health.pdf.
131.
Velásquez (2010) at 8.
132.
UNITAID is a 2006 collaborative initiative under the aegis of the World Health Organization to scale up access to treatment for HIV/AIDS, Malaria and tuberculosis.
133.
Roose-Snyder and Doyle (2009).
134.
Gold et al. (2008).
135.
Haracoglou (2008) at 52.
136.
See Minister of Health & Others v Treatment Action Campaign & Others (2002) (5) SA 721 (CC).
137.
See Joseph (2003), supra note 95 at 442.
138.
Yu (2008b) at 355.
139.
UN Human Rights Committee (2007).
140.
See online: http://www.achap.org.
141.
On this initiative see Avafia et al. (2009) at 182.
142.
See Avafia et al. (2009), ibid at 185.
143.
See “President Mills urges pharmacists to make NHIS sustainable”, online: http://news.myjoyonline.com/health/201008/50684.asp.
144.
See Chandra (2010), supra note 104 at 219.
145.
See Human Rights Protected? Nine Southern African Country Reports on HIV, AIDS and the Law (Pretoria: Pretoria University Law Press, 2007).
146.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 131.
147.
See Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 879; Hestermeyer (2007), ibid.
148.
Kinney and Clark (2004) at 287, 291 [Kinney & Clark, “Health Care Provisions in the Constitutions of the World”].
149.
On the right to health as part of justiciable fundamental human rights: see Article 18 & 26 of the Constitution of Burkina Faso, 1991; Article 8 of the Benin Constitution, 1990; Article 68 of the Constitution of Cape Verde, 1992; Articles 54 & 94 of the Constitution of Mozambique, 1990; Article 8 of the Constitution of Senegal, 2001; Article 41 of the Constitution of Rwanda, 2003; Articles 42 & 47 of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Congo, 2005; Article 19 of the Constitution of Burundi, 2005; Article 17 of the Mali Constitution, 1992; Article 14 of the Constitution of Togo, 1992; Article 77 of the Constitution of Angola, 2010. The right to health as part of the directive principles of state policy: see Article 34(2) of the Constitution of Ghana, 1992; Article 36(e) [assuring basic necessities of life for the citizens as a fundamental duty]; Article 30 of the Constitution of Congo, 2002; Article 27 of the Lesotho Constitution 1993; Sections XIV of the Ugandan Constitution, 1995; Section 17(3)(d) of the Constitution of Nigeria, 1999; Article 13(c) of the Constitution of Malawi, 1994; Section 8 (3)(d) of the Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1991; Article 112 (d) of the Constitution of Zambia, 1991.
150.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 853; Haracoglou (2008), supra note 135 at 81.
151.
See e.g., In re Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC), para 75. This somewhat unprecedented approach of judicially certifying the provisions of the South African Constitution, before coming into force, was intended to test the provisions against what the Court referred to as ‘stated Constitutional Principles’. This case also held that socio-economic rights are justiciable.
152.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 191.
153.
Article 27(1) of the South African Constitution, 1996.
154.
See Article 38 of the South African Constitution, 1996.
155.
See Article 39(1)(b) of the South African Constitution, 1996.
156.
See generally, Christiansen (2007–2008); Mubangizi (2006) at 3; Woods (2003) at 767 [Woods, “Justiciable Social Rights”].
157.
Klug (2008) at 181.
158.
Cranston (1973) at 66.
159.
See Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 89.
160.
See Hestermeyer (2007), ibid at 89.
161.
Kinney and Clark (2004), supra note 148 at 299.
162.
See Nnamuchi (2008), supra note 106.
163.
See Dworkin (1977) at ix.
164.
Woods (2003), supra note 156 at 771.
165.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 90.
166.
Shah (1999), supra note 83 at 447–448.
167.
Amani (2009), supra note 26 at 321.
168.
Even the United States that is generally reluctant to enforce socio economic rights see Hamilton v Love, 328 F. Supp. 1182, 1194 (1971) [State must provide adequate resources to cater for conditions of persons detained during trial] ; Bishop v Jackson, 404 F. 2d 571, 580 (8^th Cir, 1968) [constitutional requirements are not to be measured or limited by dollar considerations].
169.
See Fuller (1978) at 394–400.
170.
Government of the Republic of South Africa & Others v Grootboom & Others 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (CC), para 20.
171.
On this point see In re Certification of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (4) SA 744 (CC); Soobramoney v Minister of Health, KwaZulu-Natal, 1997 (12) BCLR 1696 (CC) (SA); Government of the Republic of South Africa v Grootboom, 2000 (11) BCLR 1169 (CC) (SA); Minister of Health & Others v Treatment Action Campaign & Others, 2002 (5) SA 721 (CC) (SA); Republic v Chief Administrative Officer, La Polyclinic; Minister of Health; Attorney General (High Court, 2003) [unreported]; Khosa v Minister of Social Development, 2004 (6) SA 505 (CC) (SA). Even though much of the socio-economic rights jurisprudence here originates from South Africa, the principles underpinning them are exportable to other African jurisdictions.
172.
2002 (5) SA 721 (CC) [TAC Case].
173.
High Court, 2003 [unreported].
174.
Flood et al. (2005) at 639.
175.
See e.g. Section 1(1) of the Constitution of Nigeria, 1999; Article 1(2) of the Constitution of Ghana, 1992; Section 4 of the Constitution of the Gambia, 1997.
176.
Marbury v Madison, 5 US (1 Cranch) 137 at 176–177 (1803); Section 1(5) of the Constitution of Malawi, 1994; Article 1(2) of the Constitution of Ghana, 1992; Section 2(1)(4) & 77 of the Kenyan Constitution, 2010.
177.
See McCulloch v Maryland, 17 US (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819) [the government proceeds directly from the people; it is ‘ordained and established’ in the name of the people]; Tuffour v Attorney General, [1980] GLR 637 at 647.
178.
See Marbury v Madison, 5 US (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
179.
Stone (1994) at 444.
180.
See Marbury v Madison, 5 US (1 Cranch) 137 at 180 (1803).
181.
See Limbach (2001).
182.
See Tuffour v Attorney General [1980] GLR 637; Oppong (2011) at 207–208.
183.
See Wright (1916); Mgbeoji (2006), supra note 17 at 46. This point rejects any proposition that international law prevails over national constitutions.
184.
See e.g. Article 232 of the South African Constitution, 1996; Article 211(3) of the Malawian Constitution, 1994; Article 2(5) of the Kenyan Constitution, 2010; Articles 73 &75 of 1992 Constitution of Ghana.
185.
Tremblay (2004) at 517.
186.
See Stone (1994), supra note 179 at 448.
187.
See Attorney General v Faroe Atlantic Co Ltd [2005–2006] SCGLR 271 at 298.
188.
(2000) 6 NWLR 228.
189.
(2001) NR 85 at 86.
190.
Jammeh v Attorney General (1997–2001) GR 839.
191.
See e.g. Attorney General v Faroe Atlantic Co Ltd [2005–2006] SCGLR 271 at 298, Ghana Bar Association v Attorney General (Abban Case) [1995–96] 1 GLR 598; Mensima v Attorney General [1996–97] SCGLR 676 at 712–713.
192.
Kenya v Okunda (1969) 91 ILM 556 at 558, Anyang’ Nyong’o v AG [2007] Eklr 1 (HC).
193.
See Mohamed & Another v President of the Republic of South Africa & Others, 2001 (3) SA 893 (CC) (SA).
194.
Bimpong-Buta (2005) at 75.
195.
Chandra (2010), supra note 145 at 223.
196.
Tuffour v Attorney General [1980] GLR 637 at 647.
197.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 882.
198.
Tuffour v Attorney General [1980] GLR 637 at 647–648 [Justice Sowah].
199.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 881.
200.
Cann (2004), ibid at 881.
201.
Cann (2004), ibid at 839.
202.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 152.
203.
O’Manique (1992) at 384.
204.
Weston (1984) at 262–267.
205.
Chandra (2010), supra note 145 at 338–339.
206.
Chandra (2010), ibid at 188.
207.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 888.
208.
Shany (2006) at 342–343.
209.
UN Resolution 2000//7, para 3.
210.
For a list of these Resolutions see Helfer (2007), supra note 21 at 986.
211.
Helfer (2007), ibid at 986.
212.
Para 4 of the Doha Declaration.
213.
Para 4 of the Doha Declaration.
214.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 899.
215.
See Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 197, 205–206.
216.
Stiglitz (2002) at 251.
217.
Pauwelyn (2001), supra 39 at 577.
218.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 101; Pauwelyn (2001), ibid.
219.
Cann (2004), supra note 2 at 919.
220.
Kwoka (2009) at 647.
221.
Hestermeyer (2007), supra note 9 at 298.
222.
See Choy (1969) at 267.
223.
On this point see: Helfer (2007), supra note 21 at 1017–1018; Geiger (2004) at 278.

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Faculty of Law, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
Poku Adusei

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Adusei, P. (2013). Pharmaceutical Patents, the Right to Health, and Constitutional Supremacy in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Patenting of Pharmaceuticals and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32515-1_6

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32515-1_6
Published: 12 September 2012
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