Abstract
The lymphatic vasculature is present in nearly every tissue of the body to serve essential functions in fluid homeostasis, immune cell trafficking, and lipid transport, and it has been implicated in the progression of several diseases. This is achieved through the intrinsic contractility of the pumping collecting lymphatics returning fluid up a pressure gradient from the interstitium to the venous circulation. Despite the critical roles that this system performs, very little is known about the lymphatic vasculature in comparison to the blood vasculature, which can be attributed, in part, to the difficulty associated with imaging lymphatic vessels. With the growing interest in studying lymphatic vessels, new techniques are being developed to improve the spatial resolution to visualize small initial lymphatics and increase temporal resolution to capture the dynamic lymphatic pump function responsible for fluid propulsion. In this chapter, we summarize imaging techniques currently used to study lymphatics in vivo, including the two gold standards of lymphatic imaging, lymphoscintigraphy and MRI, as well as PET and CT scanning, ultrasound, and optical imaging techniques. We detail the advantages and limitations of each technique in the context of visualizing lymphatic vessel geometries, quantifying dynamic lymph transport, and identifying sentinel lymph nodes. We also discuss emerging imaging technologies as potential techniques for the future of lymphatic imaging.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Dixon JB (2010) Lymphatic lipid transport: sewer or subway? Trends Endocrinol Metabol 21:480–487
Levick JR, Michel CC (2010) Microvascular fluid exchange and the revised Starling principle. Cardiovasc Res 87:198–210
Rockson SG (2001) Lymphedema. Am J Med 110:288–295
Rockson SG (2008) Diagnosis and management of lymphatic vascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 52:799–806
Harvey N et al (2005) Lymphatic vascular defects promoted by Prox1 haploinsufficiency cause adult-onset obesity. Nat Genet 37:1072–1081
Alitalo K, Tammela T, Petrova T (2005) Lymphangiogenesis in development and human disease. Nature 438:946–953
Ji RC (2005) Characteristics of lymphatic endothelial cells in physiological and pathological conditions. Histol Histopathol 20:155–175
Baluk P (2005) Pathogenesis of persistent lymphatic vessel hyperplasia in chronic airway inflammation. J Clin Invest 115:247–257
Foldi M (2003) Foldi’s textbook of lymphology: for physicians and lymphedema therapists. Elsevier GmbH, Munich, Germany
Dixon JB, Moore JE Jr, Cote G, Gashev AA, Zawieja DC (2006) Lymph flow, shear stress, and lymphocyte velocity in rat mesenteric prenodal lymphatics. Microcirculation 13:597–610
Zhang F, Niu G, Lu G, Chen X (2010) Preclinical lymphatic imaging. Mol Imaging Biol 13:599–612
Ege GN (1976) Internal mammary lymphoscintigraphy. The rationale, technique, interpretation and clinical application: a review based on 848 cases. Radiology 118:101–107
Veronesi U et al (1997) Sentinel-node biopsy to avoid axillary dissection in breast cancer with clinically negative lymph-nodes. Lancet 349:1864–1867
Weissleder H, Weissleder R (1988) Lymphedema: evaluation of qualitative and quantitative lymphoscintigraphy in 238 patients. Radiology 167:729–735
Wilting J, Becker J, Buttler K, Weich HA (2009) Lymphatics and inflammation. Curr Med Chem 16:4581–4592
Ristimäki A, Narko K, Enholm B, Joukov V, Alitalo K (1998) Proinflammatory cytokines regulate expression of the lymphatic endothelial mitogen vascular endothelial growth factor-C. J Biol Chem 273:8413–8418
Saban MR et al (2004) Visualization of lymphatic vessels through NF-kappaB activity. Blood 104:3228–3230
Pepper MS, Tille J-C, Nisato R, Skobe M (2003) Lymphangiogenesis and tumor metastasis. Cell Tissue Res 314:167–177
Sharma R et al (2008) New horizons for imaging lymphatic function. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1131:13–36
Szuba A, Shin WS, Strauss HW, Rockson S (2003) The third circulation: radionuclide lymphoscintigraphy in the evaluation of lymphedema. J Nucl Med 44:43–57
Szuba A, Strauss W, Sirsikar SP, Rockson SG (2002) Quantitative radionuclide lymphoscintigraphy predicts outcome of manual lymphatic therapy in breast cancer-related lymphedema of the upper extremity. Nucl Med Commun 23:1171–1175
Weiss M, Baumeister RGH, Hahn K (2002) Post-therapeutic lymphedema: scintigraphy before and after autologous lymph vessel transplantation: 8 years of long-term follow-up. Clin Nucl Med 27:788–792
Szuba A et al (2002) Therapeutic lymphangiogenesis with human recombinant VEGF-C. FASEB J 16:1985–1987
Boccardo FM et al (2011) Surgical prevention of arm lymphedema after breast cancer treatment. Ann Surg Oncol 18:2500–2505
Kafejian-Haddad AP, Perez JMC, Castiglioni MLV, Miranda Júnior F, de Figueiredo LFP (2006) Lymphscintigraphic evaluation of manual lymphatic drainage for lower extremity lymphedema. Lymphology 39:41–48
Campisi C et al (2006) Diagnosis and management of primary chylous ascites. YMVA 43:1244–1248
Morton DL et al (1992) Technical details of intraoperative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Arch Surg (Chicago, Ill: 1960) 127:392–399
Giuliano AE, Kirgan DM, Guenther JM, Morton DL (1994) Lymphatic mapping and sentinel lymphadenectomy for breast cancer. Ann Surg 220:391–398; discussion 398–401
Krag D et al (1998) The sentinel node in breast cancer–a multicenter validation study. N Engl J Med 339:941–946
Czerniecki BJ, Bedrosian I, Faries M, Alavi A (2001) Revolutionary impact of lymphoscintigraphy and intraoperative sentinel node mapping in the clinical practice of oncology. Semin Nucl Med 31:158–164
Nakashima K et al (2010) Preoperative dynamic lymphoscintigraphy predicts sentinel lymph node metastasis in patients with early breast cancer. Breast Cancer 17:17–21
Thompson M et al (2007) Axillary reverse mapping (ARM): a new concept to identify and enhance lymphatic preservation. Ann Surg Oncol 14:1890–1895
Modi S et al (2007) Human lymphatic pumping measured in healthy and lymphoedematous arms by lymphatic congestion lymphoscintigraphy. J Physiol (Lond) 583:271–285
Ploeg IMC, Valdés Olmos RA, Kroon BBR, Nieweg OE (2008) The hybrid SPECT/CT as an additional lymphatic mapping tool in patients with breast cancer. World J Surg 32:1930–1934
van der Ploeg IMC, Olmos RAV, Kroon BBR, Rutgers EJT, Nieweg OE (2009) The hidden sentinel node and SPECT/CT in breast cancer patients. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 36:6–11
Uren RF (2009) SPECT/CT lymphoscintigraphy to locate the sentinel lymph node in patients with melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 16:1459–1460
Uren RF et al (2011) SPECT/CT scans allow precise anatomical location of sentinel lymph nodes in breast cancer and redefine lymphatic drainage from the breast to the axilla. Breast. doi:10.1016/j.breast.2011.11.007
Schöder H et al (2006) Molecular targeting of the lymphovascular system for imaging and therapy. Cancer Metastasis Rev 25:185–201
O’Mahony S, Solanki C (2006) Imaging of lymphatic vessels in breast cancer–related lymphedema: intradermal versus subcutaneous injection of 99mTc-immunoglobulin. Am J
Delbeke D (1999) Oncological applications of FDG PET imaging: brain tumors, colorectal cancer, lymphoma and melanoma. J Nucl Med 40:591–603
Hoffman JM, Gambhir SS (2007) Molecular imaging: the vision and opportunity for radiology in the future. Radiology 244:39–47
Veenstra HJ, Vermeeren L, Olmos RAV, Nieweg OE (2012) The additional value of lymphatic mapping with routine SPECT/CT in unselected patients with clinically localized melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 19:1018–1023
Nune SK, Gunda P, Majeti BK, Thallapally PK, Forrest ML (2011) Advances in lymphatic imaging and drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 63:876–885
Barrett T, Choyke PL, Kobayashi H (2006) Imaging of the lymphatic system: new horizons. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 1:230–245
Clément O, Luciani A (2004) Imaging the lymphatic system: possibilities and clinical applications. Eur Radiol 14:1498–1507
Misselwitz B (2006) MR contrast agents in lymph node imaging. Eur J Radiol 58:375–382
Song I, Hyeon T (2009) Inorganic nanoparticles for MRI contrast agents. Adv Mater 21:2133–2148
Hasebroock KM, Serkova NJ (2009) Toxicity of MRI and CT contrast agents. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 5:403–416
Waters EA, Wickline SA (2008) Contrast agents for MRI. Basic Res Cardiol 103:114–121
Ruehm SG, Schroeder T, Debatin JF (2001) Interstitial MR lymphography with gadoterate meglumine: initial experience in humans. Radiology 220:816–821
Lohrmann C, Foeldi E, Bartholomae J-P, Langer M (2007) Gadoteridol for MR imaging of lymphatic vessels in lymphoedematous patients: initial experience after intracutaneous injection. Br J Radiol 80:569–573
Lohrmann C, Foeldi E, Speck O, Langer M (2006) High-resolution MR lymphangiography in patients with primary and secondary lymphedema. AJR Am J Roentgenol 187:556–561
Lohrmann C, Foeldi E, Langer M (2006) Indirect magnetic resonance lymphangiography in patients with lymphedema preliminary results in humans. Eur J Radiol 59:401–406
Liu N-F, Lu Q, Jiang Z-H, Wang C-G, Zhou J-G (2009) Anatomic and functional evaluation of the lymphatics and lymph nodes in diagnosis of lymphatic circulation disorders with contrast magnetic resonance lymphangiography. J Vasc Surg 49:980–987
Ruddell A et al (2008) Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of tumor-induced lymph flow. Neoplasia 10:706–713, 1 p following 713
Matsushima S, Ichiba N, Hayashi D, Fukuda K (2007) Nonenhanced magnetic resonance lymphoductography: visualization of lymphatic system of the trunk on 3-dimensional heavily T2-weighted image with 2-dimensional prospective acquisition and correction. J Comput Assist Tomogr 31:299–302
Lu Q et al (2012) Magnetic resonance lymphography at 3T: a promising noninvasive approach to characterise inguinal lymphatic vessel leakage. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 43:106–111
Lu Q, Xu J, Liu N (2010) Chronic lower extremity lymphedema: a comparative study of high-resolution interstitial MR lymphangiography and heavily T2-weighted MRI. Eur J Radiol 73:365–373
Kobayashi H et al (2005) Detection of lymph node involvement in hematologic malignancies using micromagnetic resonance lymphangiography with a gadolinium-labeled dendrimer nanoparticle. Neoplasia 7:984–991
Corot C, Robert P, Idée J-M, Port M (2006) Recent advances in iron oxide nanocrystal technology for medical imaging. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 58:1471–1504
Ruehm SG, Corot C, Debatin JF (2001) Interstitial MR lymphography with a conventional extracellular gadolinium-based agent: assessment in rabbits. Radiology 218:664–669
Herborn CU et al (2002) Interstitial MR lymphography with MS-325: characterization of normal and tumor-invaded lymph nodes in a rabbit model. AJR Am J Roentgenol 179:1567–1572
Mouli SK, Zhao LC, Omary RA, Thaxton CS (2010) Lymphotropic nanoparticle enhanced MRI for the staging of genitourinary tumors. Nat Rev Urol 7:84–93
Weissleder R et al (1990) Ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide: an intravenous contrast agent for assessing lymph nodes with MR imaging. Radiology 175:494–498
Bellin MF, Beigelman C, Precetti-Morel S (2000) Iron oxide-enhanced MR lymphography: initial experience. Eur J Radiol 34:257–264
Bellin MF et al (1998) Lymph node metastases: safety and effectiveness of MR imaging with ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles – initial clinical experience. Radiology 207:799–808
Réty F et al (2000) MR lymphography using iron oxide nanoparticles in rats: pharmacokinetics in the lymphatic system after intravenous injection. J Magn Reson Imaging 12:734–739
Harisinghani M, Barentsz J, Hahn P (2003) Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymph-node metastases in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 348:2491–2499
Ross RW et al (2009) Lymphotropic nanoparticle-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (LNMRI) identifies occult lymph node metastases in prostate cancer patients prior to salvage radiation therapy. Clin Imaging 33:301–305
Kimura K et al (2010) High-resolution MR lymphography using ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) in the evaluation of axillary lymph nodes in patients with early stage breast cancer: preliminary results. Breast Cancer 17:241–246
Kaminskas LM, Porter CJH (2011) Targeting the lymphatics using dendritic polymers (dendrimers). Adv Drug Deliv Rev 63:890–900
Yu SB, Watson AD (1999) Metal-based X-ray contrast media. Chem Rev 99:2353–2378
Suga K, Ogasawara N, Okada M, Matsunaga N (2003) Interstitial CT lymphography-guided localization of breast sentinel lymph node: preliminary results. Surgery 133:170–179
Suga K et al (2003) Visualization of breast lymphatic pathways with an indirect computed tomography lymphography using a nonionic monometric contrast medium iopamidol: preliminary results. Invest Radiol 38:73–84
Suga K et al (2004) Breast sentinel lymph node mapping at CT lymphography with iopamidol: preliminary experience. Radiology 230:543–552
Takahashi M et al (2008) Clinical efficacy and problems with CT lymphography in identifying the sentinel node in breast cancer. World J Surg Oncol 6:57
Wu H et al (2009) Preliminary study of indirect CT lymphography-guided sentinel lymph node biopsy in a tongue VX2 carcinoma model. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 38:1268–1272
Suga K et al (2005) Breast sentinel lymph node navigation with three-dimensional interstitial multidetector-row computed tomographic lymphography. Invest Radiol 40:336–342
Rabin O, Perez J, Grimm J, Wojtkiewicz G (2006) An X-ray computed tomography imaging agent based on long-circulating bismuth sulphide nanoparticles. Nat Mater 5:118–122
Kos S, Haueisen H, Lachmund U, Roeren T (2007) Lymphangiography: forgotten tool or rising star in the diagnosis and therapy of postoperative lymphatic vessel leakage. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 30:968–973
Silvestri RC, Huseby JS, Rughani I, Thorning D, Culver BH (1980) Respiratory distress syndrome from lymphangiography contrast medium. Am Rev Respir Dis 122:543–549
Tiwari A, Cheng K, Button M, Myint F (2003) Differential diagnosis, investigation, and current treatment of lower limb lymphedema. Arch Surg 138:152–161
Vogl TJ, Bartjes M, Marzec K (1997) Contrast-enhanced lymphography. CT or MR imaging? Acta Radiol Suppl 412:47–50
Noroes J, Addiss D, Santos A, Mereidos Z (1996) Ultrasonigraphic evidence of abnormal lymphatic vessels in young men with adult Wuchereria bancrofti infection in the scrotal area. J Urol 156:409–412
Dreyer G, Addiss D, Roberts J, Norões J (2002) Progression of lymphatic vessel dilatation in the presence of living adult Wuchereria bancrofti. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 96:157–161
Suresh S et al (1997) Ultrasonographic diagnosis of subclinical filariasis. J Ultrasound Med 16:45–49
Taylor MJ et al (2005) Macrofilaricidal activity after doxycycline treatment of Wuchereria bancrofti: a double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 365:2116–2121
Dreyer G et al (1996) Ultrasonographic assessment of the adulticidal efficacy of repeat high-dose ivermectin in bancroftian filariasis. Trop Med Int Health 1:427–432
Noroes J et al (1997) Assessment of the efficacy of diethylcarbamazine on adult Wuchereria bancrofti in vivo. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 91:78–81
Gramiak R, Shah PM, Kramer DH (1969) Ultrasound cardiography: contrast studies in anatomy and function. Radiology 92:939–948
Voigt J-U (2009) Ultrasound molecular imaging. Methods 48:92–97
Dayton PA, Rychak JJ (2007) Molecular ultrasound imaging using microbubble contrast agents. Front Biosci 12:5124–5142
Nielsen KR et al (2009) Sentinel node detection in melanomas using contrast-enhanced ultrasound. Acta Radiol 50:412–417
Wisner ER et al (2003) Sentinel node detection using contrast-enhanced power Doppler ultrasound lymphography. Invest Radiol 38:358–365
Goldberg BB et al (2004) Sentinel lymph nodes in a swine model with melanoma: contrast-enhanced lymphatic US. Radiology 230:727–734
Sever AR et al (2012) Percutaneous removal of sentinel lymph nodes in a swine model using a breast lesion excision system and contrast-enhanced ultrasound. Eur Radiol 22:545–550
Sever A et al (2009) Preoperative localization of sentinel lymph nodes using intradermal microbubbles and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in patients with breast cancer. Br J Surg 96:1295–1299
Hauff P, Reinhardt M, Briel A, Debus N, Schirner M (2004) Molecular targeting of lymph nodes with L-selectin ligand-specific US contrast agent: a feasibility study in mice and dogs. Radiology 231:667–673
Weiler M, Kassis T, Dixon JB (2012) Sensitivity analysis of near-infrared functional lymphatic imaging. J Biomed Opt 17:066019
Dixon JB, Zawieja DC, Gashev AA, Cote G (2005) Measuring microlymphatic flow using fast video microscopy. J Biomed Opt 10:064016
Dixon JB, Gashev AA, Zawieja DC, Moore JE Jr, Cote G (2007) Image correlation algorithm for measuring lymphocyte velocity and diameter changes in contracting microlymphatics. Ann Biomed Eng 35:387–396
Fischer M, Costanzo U, Hoffmann U (1997) Flow velocity of cutaneous lymphatic capillaries in patients with primary lymphedema. J Vasc 17:143–149
Mellor R et al (2000) Enhanced cutaneous lymphatic network in the forearms of women with postmastectomy oedema. J Vasc Res 37:501–512
McGreevy JM, Cannon MJ, Grissom CB (2003) Minimally invasive lymphatic mapping using fluorescently labeled vitamin B12. J Surg Res 111:38–44
Soltesz EG et al (2005) Intraoperative sentinel lymph node mapping of the lung using near-infrared fluorescent quantum dots. Ann Thorac Surg 79:269–277; discussion 269–277
Rao J, Dragulescu-Andrasi A, Yao H (2007) Fluorescence imaging in vivo: recent advances. Curr Opin Biotechnol 18:17–25
CHERRICK GR, STEIN SW, LEEVY CM, DAVIDSON CS (1960) Indocyanine green: observations on its physical properties, plasma decay, and hepatic extraction. J Clin Invest 39:592–600
Philip R, Penzkofer A, Baumler W, Szeimies RM, Abels C (1996) Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopic investigation of indocyanine green. J Photochem Photobiol A 96:137–148
Saxena V, Sadoqi M, Shao J (2003) Degradation kinetics of indocyanine green in aqueous solution. J Pharm Sci 92:2090–2097
Ohnishi S, Lomnes S, Laurence R (2005) Organic alternatives to quantum dots for intraoperative near-infrared fluorescent sentinel lymph node mapping. Mol Imaging 4:172–181
Sevick-Muraca E, Rasmussen J (2008) Molecular imaging with optics: primer and case for near-infrared fluorescence techniques in personalized medicine. J Biomed Opt 13:041303
Hutteman M et al (2010) Clinical translation of ex vivo sentinel lymph node mapping for colorectal cancer using invisible near-infrared fluorescence light. Ann Surg Oncol 18:1006–1014
Sampath L, Wang W, Sevick-Muraca E (2008) Near infrared fluorescent optical imaging for nodal staging. J Biomed Opt 13:041312
Unno N et al (2007) Preliminary experience with a novel fluorescence lymphography using indocyanine green in patients with secondary lymphedema. J Vasc Surg 45:1016
Swartz M, Berk D (1996) Transport in lymphatic capillaries. I. Macroscopic measurements using residence time distribution theory. Am J Physiol 270:H324–H329
Berk D, Swartz MA, Leu A, Jain R (1996) Transport in lymphatic capillaries 2. Microscopic velocity measurement with fluorescence photobleaching. Am J Physiol 39:H330–H337
Swartz MA (2001) The physiology of the lymphatic system. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 50:3–20
Sevick-Muraca E et al (2008) Imaging of lymph flow in breast cancer patients after microdose administration of a near-infrared fluorophore: feasibility study1. Radiology 246:734
Rasmussen JC et al (2010) Human lymphatic architecture and dynamic transport imaged using near-infrared fluorescence. Transl Oncol 3:362–372
Rasmussen J, Tan I (2009) Lymphatic imaging in humans with near-infrared fluorescence. Curr Opin Biotechnol 20:74–82
Rasmussen JC, Kwon S, Sevick-Muraca EM, Cormier JN (2011) The role of lymphatics in cancer as assessed by near-infrared fluorescence imaging. Ann Biomed Eng. doi:10.1007/s10439-011-0476-1
Unno N et al (2010) A novel method of measuring human lymphatic pumping using indocyanine green fluorescence lymphography. YMVA 52:946–952
Unno N et al (2011) Influence of age and gender on human lymphatic pumping pressure in the leg. Lymphology 44:113–120
Gashev AA, Nagai T, Bridenbaugh EA (2010) Indocyanine green and lymphatic imaging: current problems. Lymphat Res Biol 8:127–130
Weiler M, Dixon JB (2013) Differential transport function of lymphatic vessels in the rat tail model and the long term effects of Indocyanine Green as assessed with near-infrared imaging. Frontiers in Physiology 4:1–10
Aldrich MB et al (2012) Concentration of indocyanine green does not significantly influence lymphatic function as assessed by near-infrared imaging. Lymphat Res Biol 10:20–24
Davies-Venn CA et al (2011) Albumin-binding domain conjugate for near-infrared fluorescence lymphatic imaging. Mol Imaging Biol. doi:10.1007/s11307-011-0499-x
Proulx ST et al (2010) Quantitative imaging of lymphatic function with liposomal indocyanine green. Cancer Res 70:7053–7062
Luo S, Zhang E, Su Y, Cheng T, Shi C (2011) A review of NIR dyes in cancer targeting and imaging. Biomaterials 32:7127–7138
Karlsen TV, McCormack E, Mujic M, Tenstad O, Wiig H (2012) Minimally invasive quantification of lymph flow in mice and rats by imaging depot clearance of near-infrared albumin. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 302:H391–H401
Huang D et al (1991) Optical coherence tomography. Science 254:1178–1181
Jung Y, Zhi Z, Wang RK (2010) Three-dimensional optical imaging of microvascular networks within intact lymph node in vivo. J Biomed Opt 15:050501
Vakoc BJ et al (2009) Three-dimensional microscopy of the tumor microenvironment in vivo using optical frequency domain imaging. Nat Med 15:1219–1223
Jung Y, Reif R, Zeng Y, Wang RK (2011) Three-dimensional high-resolution imaging of gold nanorods uptake in sentinel lymph nodes. Nano Lett 11:2938–2943
Wang LV, Hu S (2012) Photoacoustic tomography: in vivo imaging from organelles to organs. Science 335:1458–1462
Yao J, Maslov K, Hu S, Wang LV (2009) Evans blue dye-enhanced capillary-resolution photoacoustic microscopy in vivo. J Biomed Opt 14:054049
Galanzha EI, Shashkov EV, Tuchin VV, Zharov VP (2008) In vivo multispectral, multiparameter, photoacoustic lymph flow cytometry with natural cell focusing, label-free detection and multicolor nanoparticle probes. Cytometry A 73:884–894
Kim C, Song K, Gao F, Wang L (2010) Sentinel lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels: noninvasive dual-modality in vivo mapping by using indocyanine green in rats—volumetric spectroscopic photoacoustic imaging and planar fluorescence imaging. Radiology 255:442–450
Song L, Kim C, Maslov K, Shung KK, Wang LV (2009) High-speed dynamic 3D photoacoustic imaging of sentinel lymph node in a murine model using an ultrasound array. Med Phys 36:3724–3729
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Weiler, M., Dixon, J.B. (2014). Measurements of Lymph Flow. In: Berardesca, E., Maibach, H., Wilhelm, KP. (eds) Non Invasive Diagnostic Techniques in Clinical Dermatology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32109-2_36
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32109-2_36
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-32108-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-32109-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)