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Status Quo of Land Contamination in China: Causes, Effects and Features

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Developing an Appropriate Contaminated Land Regime in China

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Abstract

Causes of land contamination in China are complex. Generally, agricultural Nonpoint Sources Pollution (NSP), heavy metals pollution, radioactive pollution and former industry sites are reported as main reasons of land contamination in China. Land contamination has raised health damage to the human beings and ecosystem. In the mean time, it has caused tremendous economic loss and greatly endangered the food security, food quality and social stability.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Zhou shengxian, ‘Speech on the National Video Conference on Land Contamination Survey’ (2006) 22(4) Environmental Monitoring in China 1.

  2. 2.

    Li Yi, Land Contamination Restrains the Agricultural Sustainable Development (20 July 2006) Science Times <http://www.cust.com.cn/cust/kjzx/sp/webinfo/2006/07/1242608006217180.htm>.

  3. 3.

    The National Soil Pollution Survey was launched in 2007 by the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) and the Ministry of Land and Resources; it would take three years to complete, at a cost of 1 billion RMB (US$125 million). The survey will cover the Chinese mainland only, excluding Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao Special Administrative Regions. See Li Shen, National Soil Pollution Survey Planned (19 July 2006) China.org.cn <http://www.china.org.cn/english/China/175191.htm>; for more details of the survey, see Wu Xiaoqing, ‘MEP Vice Director WU Xiaoqing Arranged Tasks for the National Land Contamination Survey’ (2006) 22(3) (18 July) Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment III.

  4. 4.

    Chen Huaiman, Huan Jing Tu Rang Xue (Science Press, 2005) 8.

  5. 5.

    M H Wong and A D Bradshaw, The Restoration and Management of Derelict Land: Modern Approaches (World Scientific Publication, 2002) 19.

  6. 6.

    Alan Wild, Soils and the Environment: An Introduction (Cambridge University Press, 1993) 11.

  7. 7.

    EPA, Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Vol 1 Human Health Evaluation Manual (Part A): Interim Final (EPA, 1989) 6–47.

  8. 8.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, ‘Environmental Issues and Countermeasures Facing New Rural Development in China’ (2006) <http://www.cciced.net/encciced/policyr/Taskforces/phase3/specialpolicystudy/200909/P020090928513091455691.pdf> 12.

  9. 9.

    William F Ritter and Adel Shirmohammadi, Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution: Watershed Management and Hydrology (Lewis Publishers, 2001) 1.

  10. 10.

    The Department of Research Center of the State Council, ‘Status Quo of the Agricultural Pollution in China and Suggested Countermeasures’ (2006) 9(4) Studies in International Technology and Economy 17.

  11. 11.

    Zhang Weili, Wu Shuxia and Ji Hong, ‘Estimation of Agricultural Non-Point Source Pollution in China and the Alleviating Strategies’ (2004) 37(7) Scientia Agricultura Sinica 1008.

  12. 12.

    MEP, ‘Gazette of China’s Environmental Protection’ (31 May 2010) <http://jcs.mep.gov.cn/hjzl/zkgb/2009hjzkgb/201006/t20100603_190415.htm>.

  13. 13.

    Poor wastewater treatment was thought to be main reasons. This is especially the case (accounting for 85% of the total wastewater irrigation area) in north China in those areas along the watersheds of the Haihe, Liaohe, Huanghe and Huaihe Rivers where water scarcity is severe. It should be noted that, for a long time, the land application of wastewater was considered as one of the most cost-effective options of sludge disposal. Lei Luo et al., ‘An Inventory of Trace Element Inputs to Agricultural Soils in China’ (2009) 90(8) Journal of Environmental Management 2524.

  14. 14.

    Zhu Wendong, ‘The Impact of Sewage Irrigation on Farm Production’ (2007) 35(12) Journal of Anhui Agricultural Science 3623.

  15. 15.

    Ibid.

  16. 16.

    G L Wang and W J Lin, ‘Contamination of Soil from Sewage Irrigation and Its Remediation’ (2003) 22(2003) Journal of Agro-environment Science 163.

  17. 17.

    P M Huang and I K Iskandar (eds), Soils and Groundwater Pollution and Remediation: Asia, Africa, and Oceania (Lewis Publishers, 1999), 186–188.

  18. 18.

    Wang and Lin, above n16.

  19. 19.

    Anonymous, China Became Global No1 on the Pesticides Production in 2007 (29 March 2008) Chinese Investment Consultation Net <http://www.ocn.com.cn/free/200801/huagongrihua074.htm>.

  20. 20.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  21. 21.

    MEP and National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Environment Statistical Yearbook 2009 (China Statistics Press, 2009).

  22. 22.

    Ji Wizhen, ‘The New Progress of the Principle of Prevention and Treatment in Agricultural Non-point Source Pollution’ (2008) 7(36) Science and Technology of West China 7.

  23. 23.

    The Department of Research Center of the State Council, above n 10.

  24. 24.

    Studied shows when the volume of spray liquid applied was high (>500 l/ha), only about 20% of the pesticide was deposited on the crop, with most of the chemical being wasted on the soil. See G A Matthews, Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment (Blackwell Publishing, 2006) 168.

  25. 25.

    The Department of Research Center of the State Council, above n 10.

  26. 26.

    In March 1986, Deng Xiaoping named the National Program on High Technology Development, also called the 863 Program-program, which named by the date it has been introduced; similarly, the National Program on the Development of Basic Research was launched in March 1997, also called 973 program when former President Jiang Zemin inaugurated it. In both these programs, basic researches on soil environment protection consists the major components.

  27. 27.

    Project Group of National Program on the Development of Basic Research (973 Programme), ‘News Letter for the < Soil and Air Quality Changing Regularity and Rule of Control in Yangtze River and Pearl >’ (Project No 2002CB410800, Project Office of the < Soil and Air Quality Changing Regularity and Rule of Control in Yangtz River and Pearl>, 20 May 2007) <http://www.sebc.org.cn/973/briefings/2007%C4%EA5%D4%C220%C8%D5%A3%BA%B5%DA14%C6%DA.pdf>.

  28. 28.

    Ibid.

  29. 29.

    Li Jie and Zhou Yingheng, ‘Effectiveness of Rural Environmental Education on Non-point Source Pollution Control’ (2007) 7(3) Journal of Nanjing Agricultural University(Social Sciences Edition) 89.

  30. 30.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  31. 31.

    Josephine Williams, Understanding the Overuse of Chemical Fertilizer in China: A Synthesis of Historic Trends, Recent Studies, and Field Experiences (8 July 2005) <http://forestry.msu.edu/china/new%20folder/jo_fertilizer.pdf>.

  32. 32.

    Su Yang, ‘China’s Rural Pollution Problem’, Economic Information 14 January 2006 <http://www.chinaelections.org/NewsInfo.asp?NewsID=45122>. In addition, CCICED reported that the application level of chemical fertilizer in China is 368 kg/ha, which overran the upper limit of 225kg/ha to prevent possible adverse effects of fertilizer on soil and water proposed by developed countries. See Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  33. 33.

    Jane Qiu, China Takes Stock of Environment: Survey Finds Agriculture Causing Major Damage (12 February 2010) <http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100212/full/news.2010.68.html>.

  34. 34.

    MEP, State Statistics Bureau and Ministry of Agriculture, Gazette of the First National Pollution Sources Census (9 February 2010) MEP <http://cpsc.mep.gov.cn/gwgg/201002/W020100225545523639910.pdf>.

  35. 35.

    Jonathan Watts, Chinese Farms Cause More Pollution than Factories (9 February 2010) guardian.co.uk <http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/feb/09/china-farms-pollution>.

  36. 36.

    MEP, above n 34.

  37. 37.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  38. 38.

    Wen Tiejun, Chen Cunwang and Shi Yan, ‘Real Cost of the Nitrogenous Fertilizer’ (January 2010) <http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/china/zh/press/reports/cf-n-rpt.pdf>.

  39. 39.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  40. 40.

    Jane Qiu, China Takes Stock of Environment: Survey Finds Agriculture Causing Major Damage (12 February 2010) <http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100212/full/news.2010.68.html>. Wang Yanliang is the Ministry of Agriculture Science and Technology Department of Education Inspector in 2010.

  41. 41.

    Hu Yinan, Plans to Conduct China’s Rural Pollution Survey (4 August 2008) China Daily <http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2008-08/04/content_6901436.htm>.

  42. 42.

    Zhou, above n1.

  43. 43.

    Wild, above n 6, 190.

  44. 44.

    Teng Yanguo et al., ‘Eco-environmental Geochemistry of Heavy Metal Pollution in Dexing Mining Area’ (2004) 23(4) Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 349.

  45. 45.

    Project Group of National Project Group of National Program on the Development of Basic Research, above n 27.

  46. 46.

    B J Alloway, Heavy Metals in Soils (Blackie Academic & Professional, 2nd ed, 1995); see also Binggan Wei and Linsheng Yang, ‘A review of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Urban Soils, Urban Road Dusts and Agricultural Soils from China’ (2010) 94(2) Microchemical Journal 99.

  47. 47.

    The IPI is defined as the mean value of the pollution index (PI) of an element. In this study, the PI of each element is defined as the ratio of the metal concentration in the city to the background concentration of the corresponding metal as the following formulation: PIi = Ci/Bi, where Cn is the concentration of element in environment, Bn is the background value. See Wei and Yang, above n 46.

  48. 48.

    Ibid.

  49. 49.

    Luo Zhongyun, ‘Cadmium Pollution Disasters in China Begin to Grow’, Beijing Scientific Weekly (Beijing), 14 January 2008.

  50. 50.

    Ibid.

  51. 51.

    Itai-itai disease was found in the cadmium (Cd) polluted Jinzu River basin in Toyama Prefecture, and has been generally recognized since the 1950’s by the effort of inhabitants and Dr. Hagino who was a general practitioner with a private clinic in the polluted area. Itai-itai disease was officially recognized in 1968 as the first disease induced by environmental pollution in Japan after legal proceedings. Especially, the basis that concluded the cause of the disease to be Cd pollution was epidemiological evidence that only cadmium can explain the limited development of itai-itai disease in a specific area around parts of the Jinzu River. More background information about Itai-itai disease can read Joshua W Hamilton, What Is Ouch-ouch or Itai-itai Disease? (2010) Access Science <http://www.accessscience.com/studycenter.aspx?main=9&questionID=4978>.

  52. 52.

    Luo, above n 49.

  53. 53.

    Yan-xia Li et al., ‘Cadmium in Animal Production and Its Potential Hazard on Beijing and Fuxin farmlands’ (2010) 177(1–3) Journal of Hazardous Materials 475.

  54. 54.

    D Jaffe and S Strode, ‘Sources, fate and transport of atmospheric mercury from Asia’ (2008) 5(2) Environmental Chemistry 121.

  55. 55.

    L Zhang and M H Wong, ‘Environmental Mercury Contamination in China: Sources and Impacts’ (2007) 33(1) Environment International 108.

  56. 56.

    Tang S L et al., ‘Mercury Speciation and Emissions from Coal Combustion in Guiyang, Southwest China’ (2007) 105(2) Environmental Research 175.

  57. 57.

    Celia Y Chen, China’s Mercury Problem: A Sleeping Giant? (2008) The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars <http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/chen_mehta_yi_commentary_ces10.pdf>.

  58. 58.

    C Y Chen et al., ‘Mercury and Arsenic Bioaccumulation and Eutrophication in Baiyangdian Lake, China’ (2008) 190(1–4) Water Air and Soil Pollution 115.

  59. 59.

    Hua Zhang et al., In Inland China, Rice, Rather than Fish, Is the Major Pathway for Methylmercury Exposure (2010) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences <http://dx.doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1001915>.

  60. 60.

    Yaping Zhang et al., ‘Source Apportionment of Lead containing Aerosol Particles in Shanghai Using Single Particle Mass Spectrometry ‘ (2009) (74) Chemosphere 501.

  61. 61.

    Brett H Robinson, ‘E-waste: An Assessment of Global Production and Environmental Impacts’ (2009) 408(2) Science of the Total Environment 183.

  62. 62.

    Coby S C Wong et al., ‘Evidence of Excessive Releases of Metals from Primitive E-waste Processing in Guiyu, China’ (2007) 148(1) Environmental Pollution 62.

  63. 63.

    Yan Li et al., ‘The Hazard of Chromium Exposure to Neonates in Guiyu of China’ (2008) 403(1–3) Science of the Total Environment 99.

  64. 64.

    W J Deng et al., ‘Distribution of PBDEs in Air Particles from An Electronic Waste Recycling Site Compared with Guangzhou and Hong Kong, South China’ (2007) 33(8) Environment International 1063.

  65. 65.

    The city of Guiyu is home to 5500 businesses devoted to processing discarded electronics, known as e-waste. According to local websites, the region dismantles 1.5 million pounds of junked computers, cell phones and other devices a year. For more information about the Guiyu ‘e-waste industry’, see Chien-min Chung’s photo collections on the Time Photo 2011. see Chien min Chung, China’s Electronic Waste Village (2011) <http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1870162,00.html>.

  66. 66.

    A O W Leung et al., ‘Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust from E-waste Recycling and Its Human Health Implications in Southeast China’ (2008) 42(7) (1 April) Environmental Science & Technology 2674.

  67. 67.

    X Huo et al., ‘Elevated Blood Lead Levels of Children in Guiyu: An electronic Waste Recycling Town in China’ (2007) 115(7) Environmental Health Perspectives 1113.

  68. 68.

    Leung et al., above n 66.

  69. 69.

    Peter Riley, Nuclear Waste: Law, Policy, and Pragmatism (Ashgate, 2004) 33–7.

  70. 70.

    Fang Da, ‘Prevention of Radioactive Pollution Is An Important Commission’ (2005) 9(1) Studies in International Technology and Economy 28.

  71. 71.

    Four earlier nuclear power plants are Zhejiang Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant Base, Guangdong Dayawan/Ling’ao Nuclear Power Plant and Jiangsu Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant. Guangdong Yangjiang, Zhejiang Sanmen, Liaonin Hongheyan nuclear power plants are under construction since 2004. Meanwhile, several provinces and cities are competing for nuclear power plant and hopefully will get approved by the State Council.

  72. 72.

    Fang, above n 70.

  73. 73.

    Ibid.

  74. 74.

    Ibid.

  75. 75.

    SEPA, 2008 Report on the State of the Environment of China (2008) <http://english.mep.gov.cn/down_load/Documents/201002/P020100225377359212834.pdf>.

  76. 76.

    Xinmin Weekly, Investigation to the Baotou ‘Nuclear Pollution’ Radioactive Water Is Leaking to the Yellow River (20 September 2006) <http://news.sohu.com/20060920/n245442783.shtml>.

  77. 77.

    《中华人民共和国放射性污染防治法》[Law of the People’s Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Radioactive Pollution] (People’s Republic of China) National People’s Congress Standing Committee, Order No 6, 28 June 2003.

  78. 78.

    Zhangdong Jin et al., ‘Concentrations and Contamination Trends of Heavy Metals in the Sediment cores of Taihu Lake, East China, and Their Relationship with Historical Eutrophication’ (2010) 29(1) Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 33.

  79. 79.

    Chen Lei, Disaster from Brownfield: People in New-built Communities Are Suffering Unknown Risks? (2010) <http://www.soufun.com/news/2010-06-02/3407551.htm>.

  80. 80.

    Yao Haiying, Truth Behind China’s Biggest Contaminated Land Reimbursement Incident (3 March 2010) <http://www.time-weekly.com/show.php?contentid-5985.html>.

  81. 81.

    Ibid.

  82. 82.

    Environmental Protection Agency of China, EPAC, 1995.

  83. 83.

    Laurie Burkitt, China’s Heavy Metal Cigarettes (7 October 2010) <http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/10/07/china’s-heavy-metal-cigarettes/>.

  84. 84.

    CCICED, ‘Environment and Health Management System and Policy Framework’ (No 2008 (3), 11 November 2008) <http://www.cciced.net/ktyj_1/ktz/taskresearch4/hjyjkyjktz2007_2008/200908/P020090819533345286620.pdf>.

  85. 85.

    Chen, above n 4, 12.

  86. 86.

    CCICED, above n 84.

  87. 87.

    Kobe He et al., Prevalence and Pathways and Sources of Lead Poisoning in China (17 November 2010) The LEAD Group Inc <http://www.lead.org.au/lanv10n3/lanv10n3-4.html>.

  88. 88.

    Xinhua News Agency, 354 People Suffer Lead poisoning in Northwest China (7 September 2006) Xinhua News Agency <http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200609/07/eng20060907_300361.html>.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.

  90. 90.

    Special Policy Group on Environmental Issues Facing New Rural Development, above n 8.

  91. 91.

    World Bank and PRC State Environmental Protection Administration, Cost of Pollution in China: Estimates of Economic and Physical Damage (World Bank, 2008) XVII.

  92. 92.

    Ibid.

  93. 93.

    Ibid.

  94. 94.

    The Department of Research Center of the State Council, above n 10.

  95. 95.

    Ibid.

  96. 96.

    Ibid.

  97. 97.

    H M Chen, Behavior of Chemicals in Soils and Environmental Quality (Science Press, 2002).

  98. 98.

    Qishi Luo, Philip Catney and David Lerner, ‘Risk-based Management of Contaminated Land in the UK: Lessons for China?’ (2009) 90(2) Journal of Environmental Management 1123.

  99. 99.

    Located in the Yangtze Delta plain, Taihu Lake (Chinese: 太湖; pinyin: Tài Hú; literally ‘Grand Lake’) is the third largest freshwater lake in China. It is on the border of the Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces with an area of 2250 km2 and an average depth of 2 meters. With rapid and extensive industrial and agricultural development around the lake area, Taihu Lake has suffered severe water pollution in recent years. In May 2007, the lake was overtaken by a major algae bloom and by major pollution with cyanobacteria which drew attention of the whole nation. Long term target to clean the Taihu Lake has been set by the State Council and synthetic pollution remediation projects in Taihu Lake area have been monitored and reported by the MEP every year.

  100. 100.

    See Liu Enfeng, Shen Ji and Liu Xingqi, ‘Geochemical Features of Heavy Metals in Core Sediments of Northwestern Taihu Lake, China’ (2005) 24(1) Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 73. See also Zhangdong Jin et al., ‘Concentrations and Contamination Trends of Heavy Metals in the Sediment cores of Taihu Lake, East China, and Their Relationship with Historical Eutrophication’ (2010) 29(1) Chinese Journal of Geochemistry 33.

  101. 101.

    Jin et al., ibid.

  102. 102.

    Jiaozhou Bay is a semi-enclosed coastal embayment located on the east coast of China and adjacent to the Yellow Sea. The Bay is surrounded by Qingdao, Jiaozhou and Jiaonan cities, which have a combined population of over seven million and is one of the most populated coastal regions on the east coast of China. Over the years, this over 400 km2 area is proved highly significant for civil, industrial and commercial development of the seaport city Qingdao.

  103. 103.

    Xu Chen Wang, Huan Feng and Hai QingMa, ‘Assessment of Metal Contamination in Surface Sediments of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao, China’ (2007) 35(1) CLEAN – Soil, Air, Water 62.

  104. 104.

    Chunfa Wu et al., ‘Studies on the Chromium Concentrations in Topsoils and Subsoils of Two Rapidly Industrialized Cities in the Yangtze River Delta in East China’ (2010) Environmental Earth Sciences 1.

  105. 105.

    Zijun Li, Soil Quality Deteriorating in China, Threatening Public Health and Ecosystems (27 July 2006) Worldwatch Institute <http://www.worldwatch.org/node/4419>.

  106. 106.

    Julian L Wong, ‘The Food–Energy–Water Nexus: An Integrated Approach to Understanding China’s Resource Challenges’ (2010) Spring 2010 Harvard Asia Quarterly 15.

  107. 107.

    Anonymous, Climate Change Threatens China’s Food Security, Warns Greenpeace (October 15 2008) Greenpeace China <http://www.greenpeace.org/eastasia/press/releases/climate-energy/2008/food-security-climate-change/>.

  108. 108.

    Asian Development Bank, ‘Country Environmental Analysis for the People’s Republic of China’ (May 2007) <http://www.adb.org/Documents/Produced-Under-TA/39079/39079-PRC-DPTA.pdf>.

  109. 109.

    Jie Chen, ‘Rapid urbanization in China: A real challenge to soil protection and food security’ (2007) 69(1) CATENA 1.

  110. 110.

    According to residue tests made in January and April 2007, the compliance rate was 93.6% on average, derived from 96.7% from production bases, 93.7% from wholesale markets, 91.7% from supermarkets and 92.5% from farm produce markets.

  111. 111.

    The Department of Research Center of the State Council, above n 10.

  112. 112.

    Ibid.

  113. 113.

    The ninth Asia Pacific Conference on Tobacco and Health was held in Sydney, Australia with the theme ‘FCTC (Framework Convention on Tobacco Control) in Asia Pacific: Change, Challenge and Progress.’ More than 600 people from more than 40 countries and regions attended the conference. See People’s Daily Online, Some Chinese Cigarettes High in Heavy Metal Content (9 October 2010) People’s Daily <http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90782/90872/7160898.html>.

  114. 114.

    Only cases with grievous social-economic influence would enter into MEP’s list, but there’s no specific definition for ‘grievous’ so far.

  115. 115.

    Zhou Shengxian, above n1.

  116. 116.

    Chen, above n 4, 8.

  117. 117.

    Ibid.

  118. 118.

    CCICED, above n 84.

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    Xiaobo Zhao

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Zhao, X. (2013). Status Quo of Land Contamination in China: Causes, Effects and Features. In: Developing an Appropriate Contaminated Land Regime in China. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31615-9_2

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