Abstract
The primary question examined in this study is the extent to which international law can be expected to mitigate environmental disruption in times of warfare, whether interstate or intrastate (internal). Approaches to protecting the environment from military damage that have legal precedents include: (a) remaining at peace; (b) establishing zones of peace; (c) limiting certain weapons; (d) limiting certain means of warfare; and (e) limiting damage to natural resources. Of the various bodies of international law, neither International Environmental Law nor International Human Rights Law seems directly applicable to the question at hand, whereas International Humanitarian Law (the Law of War), including International Arms Control and Disarmament Law, is. Three relatively recent multilateral treaties can be singled out for their specific relevance to environmental disruption during wartime: (a) 1977 Protocol I on International Armed Conflicts (UNTS 17512); (b) 1980 Land Mine Protocol II of the 1980 Inhumane Weapon Convention [regarding international armed conflicts] (UNTS 22495); and (c) 1977 Protocol II on Non-international Armed Conflicts (UNTS 17513). The first of these has explicitly expanded International Humanitarian Law to encompass environmental concerns per se. A consideration of these three instruments, together with other components of International Humanitarian Law which provide incidental protection to the environment, suggests that existing constraints are about as stringent as is currently feasible, given the state of the underlying cultural norms throughout the world. It is concluded that a state (nation) which becomes party to an International Humanitarian Law treaty does so in good faith and can generally be expected to comply with its strictures. It is noted that a preponderance of the numerous states non-parties to important relevant instruments suffer from some combination of poverty, lack of human or other development, and paucity of basic freedoms. Increased treaty participation, and firmer expectations of compliance, will depend upon a combination of widespread military and civil education to nurture relevant underlying cultural norms on the one hand, and the alleviation of poverty and spread of democratization and integrity on the other. Finally, it is recommended (a) that a treaty be adopted that would prohibit the use in war of nuclear weapons, and (b) that natural heritage sites of outstanding universal value be designated as demilitarized zones.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
The numbered references are provided in Chap. 3.
- 2.
Reproduced from: Gleditsch, N.P., et al. (eds). Conflict and the Environment. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 598 pp: pp 535–553 (Chap. 32); 1997 with the original title “Environmental Protection from Wartime Damage: The Role of International Law” by permission of the Springer Verlag, the copyright holder, on 14 March 2012. The author is pleased to acknowledge useful suggestions from Richard A. Falk (Princeton), Jozef Goldblat (Geneva), Jean Perrenoud (Geneva), Nico J. Schrijver (The Hague), Christopher D. Stone (Los Angeles), Wil D. Verwey (Groningen), and Carol E. Westing (Putney).
- 3.
Two treaties of relevance here have, in fact, entered into force following publication of this paper, both in large part owing to nongovernmental pressures: (a) the 1997 Anti-personnel Land Mine Convention (UNTS 35597); and (b) the 2008 Cluster Munition Convention (UNTS 47663).
- 4.
The 1998 International Criminal Court Statute (UNTS 38544) entered into force following publication of this paper.
References
Antoine, P. 1992. International Humanitarian Law and the protection of the environment in time of armed conflict. International Review of the Red Cross (Geneva) 32(291):517–537.
Bouvier, A. 1991. Protection of the natural environment in time of armed conflict. International Review of the Red Cross (Geneva) 25(285):567–578.
Bouvier, A. 1992. Recent studies on the protection of the environment in time of armed conflict. International Review of the Red Cross (Geneva) 32(291):554–566.
Chayes, A., & Chayes, A.H. 1993. On compliance. International Organization (Cambridge, MA, USA) 47(2):175–205.
Chayes, A., & Chayes, A.H. 1995. The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press, 417 pp.
CIA. 1995. World Factbook 1995. Washington: US Central Intelligence Agency, 557 pp + 17 maps.
Diederich, M.D., Jr. 1992. “Law of War” and ecology: a proposal for a workable approach to protecting the environment through the Law of War. Military Law Review (Charlottesville, VA, USA) 136:137–160.
Drucker, M.P. 1989. Military commander’s responsibility for the environment. Environmental Ethics (Denton, TX, USA) 11:135–152.
Falk, R.A. 1975. Methods and means of warfare: counterinsurgency, tactics, and the law. In: Trooboff, P.D. (ed.). Law and Responsibility in Warfare: the Vietnam Experience. Chapel Hill, NC, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 280 pp: pp 35–53,102–113.
Falk, R.A. 1984. Proposed Convention on the Crime of Ecocide. In: Westing, A.H. (ed.). Environmental Warfare: a Technical, Legal and Policy Appraisal. London: Taylor & Francis, 107 pp: pp 45–49.
Falk, R.[A.]. 1992. Environmental Law of War: an Introduction. In: Plant, G. (ed.). Environmental Protection and the Law of War: a ‘Fifth Geneva’ Convention on the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict. London: Belhaven Press, 284 pp: pp 78–95.
French, H.F. 1994. Making environmental treaties work. Scientific American (New York) 271(6):94–97.
Goldblat, J. 1991. Legal protection of the environment against the effects of military activities. Bulletin of Peace Proposals [now Security Dialogue] (Oslo) 22(4):399–406.
Goldblat, J. 1994. Arms Control: a Guide to Negotiations and Agreements. London: Sage Publications, 772 pp.
IBRD. 1995. World Development Report 1995: Workers in an Integrating World. Washington: International Bank for Reconstruction & Development [World Bank] -&- New York: Oxford University Press, 251 pp.
ICRC. 1993. Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in Time of Armed Conflict. Geneva: International Committee of the Red Cross, 6 pp; also in: New York: United Nations General Assembly, Document No. A/49/323 (19 Aug 94), 53 pp: pp 49–53; also in: American Journal of International Law (Washington) 89(3):641–644. 1995.
Junod, M. 1951. Warrior without Weapons [transl. from the French by Fitzgerald, E.]. London: Jonathan Cape, 318 pp.
Kaplan, R. (ed.). 1996. Freedom in the World: the Annual Survey of Political Rights & Civil Liberties 1995–1996. New York: Freedom House, 545 pp.
Krass, A.S. 1985. Verification: How Much is Enough? London: Taylor & Francis, 271 pp.
Krass, A.S. 1996. Costs, Risks, and Benefits of Arms Control. Stanford, CA, USA: Stanford University, Center for International Security & Arms Control, 51 pp.
Lambsdorff, J.G. 1996. 1996 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index: an Index of Perceptions of Business People of Corruption around the World. Berlin: Transparency International, 8 pp.
Lopez, L. 1994. Uncivil wars: the challenge of applying International Humanitarian Law to internal armed conflicts. New York University Law Review (New York) 69(4–5):916–962.
Mitchell, R.B. 1994. Regime design matters: intentional oil pollution and treaty compliance. International Organization (Cambridge, MA, USA) 48(3):425–458.
Roach, J.A. 1997. The Laws of War and the protection of the environment. Environment & Security (Ste-Foy, Canada) 1(2):53–67.
Roberts, A. 1992. Environmental destruction in the 1991 Gulf War. International Review of the Red Cross (Geneva) 32(291):538–553.
Rummel, R.J. 1995. Democracies ARE less warlike than other regimes. European Journal of International Relations, (London) 1(4):457–479.
Sand, P.H. 1992. Effectiveness of International Environmental Agreements: a Survey of Existing International Instruments. Cambridge, UK: Grotius Publications, 539 pp.
Sands, P. 1993. Enforcing environmental security: the challenges of compliance with international obligations. Journal of International Affairs (New York) 46(2):367–390.
Sivard, R.L. 1996. World Military and Social Expenditures 1996. 16th edn. Washington: World Priorities, 56 pp.
Stone, C.D. 1988. The law as a force in shaping cultural norms relating to war and the environment. In: Westing, A.H. (ed.). Cultural Norms, War and the Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 177 pp: pp 64–82.
UNDP. 1995. Human Development Report 1995. 6th edn. New York: United Nations Development Programme -&- New York: Oxford University Press, 230 pp.
UNGA. 1995a. Establishment of an International Criminal Court. New York: United Nations General Assembly, Resolution No. 50/46 (11 Dec 95), 2 pp. [185 (100 %) in favor (adopted without a vote)]
UNGA. 1995b. General and Complete Disarmament: Observance of Environmental Norms in the Drafting and Implementation of Agreements on Disarmament and Arms Control. New York: United Nations General Assembly, Resolution No. 50/70 M (12 Dec 95), 1 p. [157 (85 %) in favor, 2 abstentions, 4 against, 22 absent = 185]
UNSC. 1983. [Situation between Iran and Iraq.] New York: United Nations Security Council, Resolution No. S/RES/540(1983) (31 Oct 83), 1 p. [12 (80 %) in favor, 3 abstentions, 0 against, 0 absent = 15]
UNSC. 1991a. [Suspension of offensive combat operations.] New York: United Nations Security Council, Resolution No. S/RES/686(1991) (2 Mar 91), 3 pp. [11 (73 %) in favor, 3 abstentions, 1 against, 0 absent = 15]
UNSC. 1991b. [The restoration to Kuwait of its sovereignty.] New York: United Nations Security Council, Resolution No. S/RES/687(1991) (3 Apr 91), 10 pp. [12 (80 %) in favor, 2 abstentions, 1 against, 0 absent = 15]
UNWCC. 1948. History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Development of the Laws of War. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 592 pp.
USDOS. 1993. Hidden Killers: the Global Problem with Uncleared Landmines. Washington: US Department of State, Publication No. 10098, 185 + 84 pp.
USDOS. 1994. Global Landmine Crisis. Washington: US Department of State, Publication No. 10225, 61 + 25 pp.
Verwey, Wil D. 1995. Protection of the environment in times of armed conflict: in search of legal perspectives. Leiden Journal of International Law (Leiden) 8(1):7–40.
Westing, A.H. 1976. Ecological Consequences of the Second Indochina War. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 119 pp + 8 pl.
Westing, A.H. 1982. War as a human endeavor: the high-fatality wars of the twentieth century. Journal of Peace Research (Oslo) 19(3):261–270.
Westing, A.H. 1984. Environmental warfare: an overview. In: Westing, A.H. (ed.). Environmental Warfare: a Technical, Legal and Policy Appraisal. London: Taylor & Francis, 107 pp: pp 3–12.
Westing, A.H. 1985a. Explosive remnants of war: an overview. In: Westing, A.H. (ed). Explosive Remnants of War: Mitigating the Environmental Effects. London: Taylor & Francis, 141 pp: pp 1–16.
Westing, A.H. 1985b. Towards eliminating the scourge of chemical war: reflections on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of the Geneva Protocol. Bulletin of Peace Proposals [now Security Dialogue] (Oslo) 16(2):117–120.
Westing, A.H. 1987. Ecological dimension of nuclear war. Environmental Conservation. (Cambridge, UK) 14(4):295–306.
Westing, A.H. 1988a. Constraints on military disruption of the biosphere: an overview. In: Westing, A.H. (ed.). Cultural Norms, War and the Environment; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 177 pp: pp 1–17.
Westing, A.H. 1988b. Cultural constraints on warfare: micro-organisms as weapons. Medicine & War (London) 4(2):85–95.
Westing, A.H. 1988c. Towards non-violent conflict resolution and environmental protection: a synthesis. In: Westing, A.H. (ed.). Cultural Norms, War and the Environment. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 177 pp: pp 151–159.
Westing, A.H. 1989a. Herbicides in warfare: the case of Indochina. In: Bourdeau, P., et al. (eds). Ecotoxicology and Climate: with Special Reference to Hot and Cold Climates. Chichester, UK: John Wiley, 392 pp: pp 337–357.
Westing, A.H. 1989b. Proposal for an International Treaty for Protection Against Nuclear Devastation. Bulletin of Peace Proposals [now Security Dialogue] (Oslo) 20(4):435–436.
Westing, A.H. 1990. Towards eliminating war as an instrument of foreign policy. Bulletin of Peace Proposals [now Security Dialogue] (Oslo) 21(1):29–35.
Westing, A.H. 1992a. Environmental dimensions of maritime security. In: Goldblat, J. (ed.). Maritime Security: the Building of Confidence. Geneva: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, Document No. UNIDIR/92/89, 159 pp: pp 91–102.
Westing, A.H. 1992b. Protected natural areas and the military. Environmental Conservation (Cambridge, UK) 19(4):343–348.
Westing, A.H. 1993a. Environmental Modification Convention: 1977 to the present. In: Burns, R.D. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Arms Control and Disarmament. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1692 pp: pp 947–954.
Westing, A.H. 1993b. Global need for environmental education. Environment (Washington) 35(7):4–5,45.
Westing, A.H. 1993c. Human rights and the environment. Environmental Conservation (Cambridge, UK) 20(2): 99–100.
Westing, A.H. 1994a. Constraints on environmental disruption during the Gulf War. In: O’Loughlin, J., et al. (eds). War and its Consequences: Lessons from the Persian Gulf Conflict. New York: HarperCollins, 252 pp: pp 77–84.
Westing, A.H. 1994b. Environmental change and the international system: an overview. In: Calließ, J. (ed.). Treiben Unweltprobleme in Gewaltkonflikte?: Ökologische Konflikte im internationalen System und Wege zur Kooperation. Rehburg-Loccum, Germany: Evangelische Akademie Loccum, Loccumer Protokolle, No. 21/94, 354 pp: pp 207–228.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Westing, A.H. (2013). Protecting the Environment in War: Legal Constraints. In: Arthur H. Westing. SpringerBriefs on Pioneers in Science and Practice, vol 1. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31322-6_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31322-6_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-31321-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-31322-6
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)