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Tool Making

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Micro Metal Forming

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Production Engineering ((LNPE))

Abstract

Tool materials for forming processes require good ductility with high hardness and high wear resistance. In the case of micro cold forming, additional aspects have to be considered in the tool material selection. The tool shape requires structures of microscopic dimensions, i.e. edge radii, bores and notches in submillimeter sizes, which need to be formed or machined. Viscous lubricants should be avoided, because they hinder the further handling of the workpieces. The use of tools without lubricant accelerates wear and might aggravate corrosion. Wear and corrosion debris on the tool surface are unacceptable for working with microscopic structures. Thermal effects of friction require additional attention to chemical processes at the surface.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The data only represent the enthalpies of vaporization and melting. The total energies including the heating of the material and relevant enthalpy contributions are, hence, 7.8 and 1 kJ, respectively.

Abbreviations

a:

Distance (mm)

Aa, xy :

Laser affected area (m2)

aec :

Width of cut (µm)

ala :

Laser track distance (µm)

AMus :

Ultrasonic amplitude (µm)

apc :

Depth of cut (µm)

cp :

Specific heat capacity (J kg−1 K−1)

cR :

Material optical reflectivity

cα :

Optical absorption coefficient (m−1)

d:

Diameter (µm)

D:

Diffusion coefficient

dG :

Diamond grain size (µm)

dla :

Laser beam diameter (µm)

dmin :

Laser subtracted diameter (M)

E:

Elastic modulus (N/mm²)

EA:

Activation energy (J)

F:

Force (N)

FN :

Normal force (N)

f:

Focal distance (m)

fla :

Pulse frequency (laser repetition time) (Hz)

fus :

Ultrasonic frequency (Hz)

fz :

Feed per tooth (µm)

HK:

Knoop hardness

ha :

Laser affected depth (m)

hc :

Chip thickness (µm)

hcu :

Uncut chip thickness (µm)

hcu,crit :

Material specific, critical uncut chip thickness (µm)

hcu,max :

Maximum uncut chip thickness (µm)

hcu,min :

Minimum uncut chip thickness (µm)

hs :

Laser subtracted depth (m)

hλ :

Optical penetration depth (m)

I:

Incident intensity (W m−2)

I0 :

Peak incident intensity (W m−2)

Iab :

Peak absorbed intensity (W m−2)

ich :

Chemical activity

j:

Number of cutting edges

K:

Thermal conductivity (W m−1 K−1)

Kc :

Fracture toughness (MPa* m1/2)

KF :

Faraday constant

Kp :

Preston constant

kλ :

Optical damping constant

p:

Pressure (N/mm²)

Pla :

Average laser power (W)

PRR :

Reactive sticking probability

Pus :

Ultrasonic power (W)

Q′w :

Specific material removal rate (mm³/(mm*s))

Qw :

Material removal rate (mm³/s)

r:

Radius (mm)

r0 :

Radius of the diffusing particles

Ra:

Roughness, profile, arithmetic (nm)

Rz:

Roughness, profile, average maximum height (m)

ra, x(y) :

Laser affected radius (m)

rL :

Laser beam radius at the optical lens (m)

rM :

Laser melted radius (m)

rs, x(y) :

Laser subtracted radius (m)

rth :

Thermal penetration radius (heat affected zone) (m)

rw :

Laser beam waist radius (m)

rβ :

Cutting edge radius (µm)

Sa:

Roughness, area, arithmetic (nm)

Sk:

Roughness, area, core roughness depth (nm)

Spk:

Roughness, area, reduced summit height (nm)

Sq:

Roughness, area, root mean squared (nm)

Svk:

Roughness, area, reduced valley depth (nm)

t:

Time (s)

T:

Absolute temperature (K)

T0 :

Ambient (initial) temperature (K)

TB :

Absolute temperature of boiling (K)

TM :

Absolute temperature of melting (K)

Tsc :

Absolute surface temperature (K)

tB :

Material boiling time (s)

tD :

Dwell time of laser-material interaction (pulse duration) (s)

te-ph :

Electron-phonon scattering time (s)

tR :

Material removal time (s)

\( \dot{V} \) :

Volume material removal rate (m3/s)

\( \dot{V}_{e} \) :

Flow rate of the etchant (ml/min)

vc :

Cutting speed (m/min)

vf :

Feed velocity (mm/min)

vf :

Feed rate (m s−1)

vrel :

Relative velocity (m/s)

vscan :

Scanning speed (m s−1)

vt :

Tangential velocity (mm/s)

vz :

Drilling velocity (m s−1)

Z:

Densification ratio

zn :

Powder bed height for the nth layer (mm)

zT :

Platform lowering distance (mm)

α:

Thermal expansion coefficient (K−1)

β:

Angle of incidence (°)

γ:

Rake angle (°)

δ:

Thickness of the Nernst layer

ΔHM :

Enthalpy of melting (J kg−1)

ΔHV :

Enthalpy of vaporization (J kg−1)

ζ:

Beam quality factor

η:

Dynamic viscosity of the liquid

θg :

Angle of grit blasting (°)

θmf :

Angle of molten material front (°)

θ0 :

External angle of laser light incidence (°)

ρ:

Material density (kg m−3)

ρbulk :

Density of the consolidated powder (g/cm³)

ρpowder :

Density of the loose powder (g/cm³)

κ:

Thermal diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)

κel :

Electron diffusion coefficient (m2 s−1)

λ:

Optical wavelength (M)

ϕ:

Laser fluence (J m−2)

ϕab :

Absorbed laser fluence (J m−2)

ϕLoss :

Fluence losses (J m−2)

ψel :

Electrochemical potential

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  1. Laboratory for Precision Machining, Badgasteiner Straße 3, 28359, Bremen, Germany

    Ekkard Brinksmeier

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Correspondence to Ekkard Brinksmeier , Alwin Schulz , Knut Partes , Helgi Diehl , Helgi Diehl , Salar Mehrafsun or Ekkard Brinksmeier .

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    Frank Vollertsen

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Brinksmeier, E. (2013). Tool Making. In: Vollertsen, F. (eds) Micro Metal Forming. Lecture Notes in Production Engineering. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30916-8_7

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