Skip to main content

Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Studies in Computational Intelligence ((SCI,volume 427))

Abstract

The paper contributes to the development of the theory of AI-Completeness by formalizing the notion of AI-Complete, C-Complete and AI-Hard problems. The intended goal is to provide a classification of problems in the field of Artificial General Intelligence. We prove Turing Test to be an instance of an AI-Complete problem and further show certain AI problems to be AI-Complete or AI-Hard via polynomial time reductions. Finally, the paper suggests some directions for future work on the theory of AI-Completeness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Ahn, L.V.: Games With A Purpose. IEEE Computer Magazine, 96–98 (June 2006)

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ahn, L.V., Blum, M., Hopper, N., Langford, J.: CAPTCHA: Using Hard AI Problems for Security. In: Biham, E. (ed.) EUROCRYPT 2003. LNCS, vol. 2656, pp. 294–311. Springer, Heidelberg (2003)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  3. Andrich, C., Novosel, L., Hrnkas, B.: Common Sense Knowledge, Exercise Paper - Information Search and Retrieval (2009), www.iicm.tu-graz.ac.at/cguetl/courses/isr/uearchive/uews2009/Ue06-CommonSenseKnowledge.pdf

  4. Anusuya, M.A., Katti, S.K.: Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security (IJCSIS) 6(3), 181–205 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bajaj, V.: Spammers Pay Others to Answer Security Tests. The New York Times (April 25, 2010)

    Google Scholar 

  6. Bergmair, R.: Natural Language Steganography and an “AI-complete” Security Primitive. In: 21st Chaos Communication Congress, Berlin (December 2004)

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bishop, M.: Why Computers Can’t Feel Pain. Minds and Machines 19(4), 507–516 (2009)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  8. Bradford, P.G., Wollowski, M.: A formalization of the Turing Test. SIGART Bulletin 6(4), 3–10 (1995)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Chan, T.-Y.: Using a Text-to-Speech Synthesizer to Generate a Reverse Turing Test. In: 15th IEEE International Conference on Tools with Artificial Intelligence (ICTAI 2003), p. 226 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  10. Chen, J., Liu, J., Yu, W., Wu, P.: Combining Lexical Stability and Improved Lexical Chain for Unsupervised Word Sense Disambiguation. In: Second International Symposium on Knowledge Acquisition and Modeling (KAM 2009), Wuhan, November 30, pp. 430–432 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  11. Demasi, P., Szwarcfiter, J.L., Cruz, A.J.O.: A Theoretical Framework to Formalize AGI-Hard Problems. In: The Third Conference on Artificial General Intelligence, Lugano, Switzerland, March 5-8 (2010)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Dennett, D.C.: Why You Can’t Make a Computer That Feels Pain. Synthese 38(3), 415–456 (1978)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Dimmock, N., Maddison, I.: Peer-to-peer collaborative spam detection. Crossroads 11(2) (December 2004)

    Google Scholar 

  14. Dreyfus, H.L.: What computers can’t do; A critique of artificial reason. Harper & Row (1972)

    Google Scholar 

  15. Gentry, C., Ramzan, Z., Stubblebine, S.: Secure distributed human computation. In: 6th ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce, pp. 155–164 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  16. Hendler, J.: We’ve Come a Long Way, Maybe …. IEEE Intelligent Systems 23(5), 2–3 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Hirschman, L., Gaizauskas, R.: Natural Language Question Answering. The View from Here. Natural Language Engineering 7(4), 275–300 (2001)

    Google Scholar 

  18. Horvitz, E.: Reflections on Challenges and Promises of Mixed-Initiative Interaction. AI Magazine-Special Issue on Mixed-Initiative Assistants 28(2) (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  19. Horvitz, E., Paek, T.: Complementary Computing: Policies for Transferring Callers from Dialog Systems to Human Receptionists. User Modeling and User Adapted Interaction 17(1), 159–182 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Ide, N., Véronis, J.: Introduction to the special issue on word sense disambiguation: the state of the art. Computational Linguistics 24(1), 1–40 (1998)

    Google Scholar 

  21. Kapoor, A., Tan, D., Shenoy, P., Horvitz, E.: Complementary Computing for Visual Tasks: Meshing Computer Vision with Human Visual Processing. In: IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and Gesture Recognition (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  22. Karp, R.M.: Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems. In: Miller, R.E., Thatcher, J.W. (eds.) Complexity of Computer Computations, pp. 85–103. Plenum, NY (1972)

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  23. Leahu, L., Sengers, P., Mateas, M.: Interactionist AI and the promise of ubicomp, or, how to put your box in the world without putting the world in your box. In: Tenth International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing, Seoul, South Korea, September 21-24, pp. 1–10 (2008)

    Google Scholar 

  24. Legg, S.: Machine Super Intelligence. PhD Thesis, University of Lugano (June 2008), http://www.vetta.org/documents/Machine_Super_Intelligence.pdf

  25. Legg, S., Hutter, M.: Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence. Minds and Machines 17(4), 391–444 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Mallery, J.C.: Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers, Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association. St. Louis, MO (1988)

    Google Scholar 

  27. Mcintire, J.P., Havig, P.R., Mcintire, L.K.: Ideas on authenticating humanness in collaborative systems using AI-hard problems in perception and cognition. In: IEEE National Aerospace & Electronics Conference, Dayton, OH, July 21-23, pp. 50–55 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  28. Mcintire, J.P., Mcintire, L.K., Havig, P.R.: A variety of automated turing tests for network security: Using AI-hard problems in perception and cognition to ensure secure collaborations. In: International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems (CTS 2009), Baltimore, MD, May 18-22, pp. 155–162 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  29. Mert, E., Dalkilic, C.: Word sense disambiguation for Turkish. In: 24th International Symposium on Computer and Information Sciences (ISCIS 2009), Guzelyurt, September 14-16, pp. 205–210 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  30. Morgan, N., Baron, D., Bhagat, S., Carvey, H., Dhillon, R., Edwards, J., Gelbart, D., Janin, A., Krupski, A., Peskin, B., Pfau, T., Shriberg, E., Stolcke, A., Wooters, C.: Meetings about meetings: research at ICSI on speech in multiparty conversations. In: IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing (ICASSP 2003), April 6-10 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Mueller, E.T.: Daydreaming and Computation. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, p. 302 (March 1987)

    Google Scholar 

  32. Navigli, R., Velardi, P.: Structural Semantic Interconnections: A Knowledge-Based Approach to Word Sense Disambiguation. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence 27(7), 1075–1086 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Nejad, A.S.: A Framework for Analyzing Changes in Health Care Lexicons and Nomenclatures. PhD dissertation. Concordia University, Quebec, Canada (April 2010)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Nicolelis, M.A.L., Wessberg, J., Stambaugh, C.R., Kralik, J.D., Beck, P.D., Laubach, M., Chapin, J.K., Kim, J.: Real-time prediction of hand trajectory by ensembles of cortical neurons in primates. Nature 408(6810), 361 (2000)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Pepitone, J.: IBM’s Jeopardy supercomputer beats humans in practice bout, CNNMoney, http://money.cnn.com/2011/01/13/technology/ibm_jeopardy_watson (retrieved on January 13, 2011)

  36. Phillips, P.J., Beveridge, J.R.: An introduction to biometric-completeness: The equivalence of matching and quality. In: IEEE 3rd International Conference on Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems (BTAS 2009), Washington, DC, September 28-30, pp. 1–5 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  37. Raymond, E.S.: Jargon File Version 2.8.1 (March 22, 1991), http://catb.org/esr/jargon/oldversions/jarg282.txt

  38. Salloum, W.: A Question Answering System based on Conceptual Graph Formalism. In: The 2nd International Symposium on Knowledge Acquisition and Modeling (KAM 2009), China, November 30 (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  39. Sandberg, A., Boström, N.: Whole Brain Emulation: A Roadmap, Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford University. Technical Report #2008-3 (2008), http://www.fhi.ox.ac.uk/Reports/2008-3.pdf

  40. Searle, J.: Minds, Brains and Programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3(3), 417–457 (1980)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Shahaf, D., Amir, E.: Towards a theory of AI completeness. In: 8th International Symposium on Logical Formalizations of Commonsense Reasoning (Commonsense 2007), California, March 26-28 (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  42. Shahaf, D., Horvitz, E.: Generalized Task Markets for Human and Machine Computation. In: Twenty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Atlanta, GA (July 2010)

    Google Scholar 

  43. Shapiro, S.C.: Artificial Intelligence. In: Shapiro, S.C. (ed.) Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence, pp. 54–57. John Wiley, New York (1992)

    Google Scholar 

  44. Shieber, S.M.: Does the Turing Test demonstrate intelligence or not. In: Twenty-First National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI 2006), Boston, MA, July 16-20 (2006)

    Google Scholar 

  45. Shieber, S.M.: The Turing Test as Interactive Proof. Nous 41(4), 686–713 (2007)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  46. Surowiecki, J.: The Wisdom of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter Than the Few and How Collective Wisdom Shapes Business, Economies, Societies and Nations, Little, Brown (2004)

    Google Scholar 

  47. Takagi, H.: Interactive Evolutionary Computation: Fusion of the Capacities of EC Optimization and Human Evaluation. Proc. of the IEEE 89(9), 1275–1296 (2001)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Talwar, S.K., Xu, S., Hawley, E.S., Weiss, S.A., Moxon, K.A., Chapin, J.K.: Behavioural neuroscience: Rat navigation guided by remote control. Nature 417, 37–38 (2002)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Taylor, P., Black, A.: Speech synthesis by phonological structure matching. In: Eurospeech 1999, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 1531–1534 (1999)

    Google Scholar 

  50. Turing, A.: Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind 59(236), 433–460 (1950)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  51. Turing, A.M.: On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 42, 230–265 (1936)

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  52. Vaas, L.: Striptease Used to Recruit Help in Cracking Sites. PC Magazine (December 1, 2007)

    Google Scholar 

  53. Vidal, J.: Toward direct brain-computer communication. Annual Review of Biophysics and Bioengineering 2, 157–180 (1973)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Wikipedia, AI-Complete, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-complete (retrieved January 7, 2011)

  55. Yampolskiy, R.V.: AI-Complete CAPTCHAs as Zero Knowledge Proofs of Access to an Artificially Intelligent System. ISRN Artificial Intelligence, 271878 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  56. Yampolskiy, R.V.: AI-Complete, AI-Hard, or AI-Easy – Classification of Problems in AI. In: The 23rd Midwest Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science Conference, Cincinnati, OH, USA, April 21-22 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  57. Yampolskiy, R.V.: Artificial Intelligence Safety Engineering: Why Machine Ethics is a Wrong Approach. In: Philosophy and Theory of Artificial Intelligence (PT-AI 2011), Thessaloniki, Greece, October 3-4 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  58. Yampolskiy, R.V.: Embedded CAPTCHA for Online Poker. In: 20th Annual CSE Graduate Conference (Grad.-Conf. 2007), Buffalo, NY (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  59. Yampolskiy, R.V.: Graphical CAPTCHA embedded in cards. In: Western New York Image Processing Workshop (WNYIPW), IEEE Signal Processing Society, Rochester (2007)

    Google Scholar 

  60. Yampolskiy, R.V.: Leakproofing Singularity - Artificial Intelligence Confinement Problem. Journal of Consciousness Studies (JCS) 19(1-2) (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  61. Yampolskiy, R.V.: What to Do with the Singularity Paradox? In: Philosophy and Theory of Artificial Intelligence (PT-AI 2011), Thessaloniki, Greece, October 3-4 (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  62. Yampolskiy, R.V., Fox, J.: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mental Model. In: Eden, A., Moor, J., Soraker, J., Steinhart, E. (eds.) In the Singularity Hypothesis: a Scientific and Philosophical Assessment. Springer (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  63. Yampolskiy, R.V., Govindaraju, V.: Embedded Non-Interactive Continuous Bot Detection. ACM Computers in Entertainment 5(4), 1–11 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roman V. Yampolskiy .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Yampolskiy, R.V. (2013). Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness. In: Yang, XS. (eds) Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computing and Metaheuristics. Studies in Computational Intelligence, vol 427. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29694-9_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29694-9_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-29693-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-29694-9

  • eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics