Abstract
The Arab world is at present undergoing one of its most profound political upheavals in decades. This is represented in the wave of the Arab Spring mass uprisings which has dominated the Arab world since 2011. The Arab Spring has sanctioned the beginning of a new chapter in Arab politics. It has broken the long-standing taboo that saw Arab leaders as immune from mass revolutions and viewed political change as a top-downwards process initiated by either military coups or foreign intervention. Indeed, the Arab Spring has signalled the first manifestation of mass popular demand for more democratic governance in the Arab world. In addition, it has already brought back participative politics to these countries. One of the main features of modern Arab politics was the death of participative politics, as the political process was monopolized by corrupt elites. After the democracy wave, the people became a central actor in the political process. Younger generations are now engaged in politics. Even Salafi fundamentalists and Sufi spiritualists, who used to stay aloof from politics, are now well-entrenched in the political process through their own political parties.
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“The strategic alliance between Egypt and Israel has collapsed”. Ha’aretz. 14 February 2011; available at: http://www.alhadath-yemen.com/news11631.html.
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“Arab spring has created ‘intelligence disaster’, warns former CIA boss”. The Guardian, 28 August 2011; available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/28/arab-spring-intelligence-disaster-scheuer.
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“Muslim Brotherhood seeks U.S. alliance as it ascends in Egypt”. The Washington Times, 5 April 2012; available at: http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/apr/5/muslim-brotherhood-seeks-us-alliance-as-it-ascends/?page=all.
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This support was clearly evident in the run-off elections between the Brotherhood’s candidate Mohammad Morsy and ex-General Ahmad Shafiq. Following the end of vote-casting, the Muslim Brotherhood compiled preliminary election returns from nearly all polling centres, and unilaterally declared Morsy as the winner, with almost 52 % of the vote. Although the Brotherhood’s move was illegal, the Obama administration demanded that the SCAF declared the election results without investigating the hundreds of appeals presented by Shafiq to the Election Commission. On 20 June 2012, US Secretary of State Clinton stated that Washington insisted that the SCAF must turn power over to the “legitimate winner” of the country’s first post-Mubarak presidential elections, and not subvert constitutional authority. In fact, if the SCAF-appointed Election Commission had investigated the appeals, they would have reversed the preliminary results due to the forging of about a million ballots. However, on 24 June and under intense US pressure, the Commission declared Morsy the winner of Egypt’s presidential elections.
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“Israel-Egypt security cooperation at one of highest levels since peace deal, say officials on both sides”. Haaretz, 9 August 2012; available at: http://www.haaretz.com/blogs/east-side-story/israel-egypt-security-cooperation-at-one-of-highest-levels-since-peace-deal-say-officials-on-both-sides.premium-1.457085.
- 7.
“A honeymoon that wasn’t: Egypt’s new Islamist leaders have so far failed to embrace their Gazan brothers”. The Economist, 29 September 2012; available at: http://www.economist.com/node/21563776.
- 8.
A leaked US diplomatic cable from November 2009 written by the US ambassador to Libya, Gene Cretz, described Mr Jibril as a man who helped pave the way for the privatization of Libya’s economy and welcomed American companies. “With a PhD in strategic planning from the University of Pittsburgh, Jibril is a serious interlocutor who gets the US perspective,” ambassador Cretz wrote. “Head of Libyan ‘Think Tank’ Outlines Human Development Strategy”. The Telegraph, 31 January 2011; available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wikileaks-files/libya-wikileaks/8294558/HEAD-OF-LIBYAN-THINK-TANK-OUTLINES-HUMAN-DEVELOPMENT-STRATEGY.html.
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“Taking Charge of Libya’s Rebels: An In-Depth Portrait of Colonel Khalifa Haftar”. The Jamestown Foundation, Vol. 2, No. 3, 31 March 2011; available at: http://mlm.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=37724&tx_ttnews[backPid]=567&no_cache=1
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See the text of UN resolution 1973 at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sc10200.doc.htm.
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“Arab League condemns broad bombing campaign in Libya”. The Washington Post, 21 March 2011; available at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/03/20/AR2011032001965.html.
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“Libya: Gaddafi government accepts truce plan, says Zuma”. BBC News, 11 April 2011; available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13029165.
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“Libya letter by Obama, Cameron and Sarkozy: Full text”. BBC News, 15 April 2011; online at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13090646.
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John McCain, Lindsey Graham, Mark Kirk and Marco Rubio, “The Promise of a Pro-American Libya”. The Wall Street Journal, 7 October 2011; available at: http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203388804576613293623346516.html
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“From revolution to unsolved crisis”. Al-Ahram Weekly (Cairo) 14–20 April, 2011.
- 16.
“Yemen’s Imperialist Transition”. Yemen Times, 6 February 2012; available at: http://www.yementimes.com/en/1529/opinion/322/Yemen%E2%80%99s-imperialist-transition.htm.
- 17.
“U.S. Government Assistance to Yemen”. Fact Sheet, Office of the Spokesperson, U.S. State Department, 27 September 2012: available at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/09/198335.htm.
- 18.
“U.S. escalates clandestine war in Yemen”. Los Angeles Times, 16 May 2010; available at: http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/world_now/2012/05/washington-escalation-american-clandestine-war-yemen-us-troops-.html.
- 19.
“Presidential Letter—2012 War Powers Resolution 6-Month Report”. Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, 15 June 2012.
- 20.
“President Hadi, Yemen’s New Leader, Lays out his Vision”. Al-Sharq al-Awsat, 7 March 2010.
- 21.
“US sends marines to Yemen embassy as turmoil spreads across Muslim world”. The Telegraph, 14 September 2012; available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/yemen/9542014/US-sends-marines-to-Yemen-embassy-as-turmoil-spreads-across-Muslim-world.html
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“Blame Iran: a dangerous response to the Bahraini uprising”. The Guardian, 20 August 2011; available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/aug/20/bahraini-uprising-iran.
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“U.S. Defense Secretary Pays Surprise Visit to Bahrain”. The Wall Street Journal, 11 March 2011; available at: http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703597804576194620977454958.html.
- 24.
“Statement from the Press Secretary on violence in Yemen and Bahrain”. The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, 13 March 2011.
- 25.
“The Proxy Battle in Bahrain”. The New York Times, 19 March 2011; available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/20/weekinreview/20proxy.html?pagewanted=all.
- 26.
“US resumes arms sales to Bahrain. Activists feel abandoned”. The Christian Science Monitor, 14 May 2012; available at: http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/0514/US-resumes-arms-sales-to-Bahrain.-Activists-feel-abandoned.
- 27.
“With $30 Billion Arms Deal, U.S. Bolsters Saudi Ties”. The New York Times, 29 December 2011; available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/30/world/middleeast/with-30-billion-arms-deal-united-states-bolsters-ties-to-saudi-arabia.html.
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Selim, G.M. (2013). The Arab Spring and Arms Control: Any Change in Arab Perceptions?. In: Global and Regional Approaches to Arms Control in the Middle East. SpringerBriefs in Environment, Security, Development and Peace(), vol 4. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29314-6_6
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