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Sub-Nucleonic Structure and the Modern Picture of Isotopes

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Isotopes in Condensed Matter

Part of the book series: Springer Series in Materials Science ((SSMATERIALS,volume 162))

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Abstract

Investigations of the atomic nucleus, and the fundamental forces that determine nuclear structure as is well known offer fascinating insights into the nature of the physical world. We all known well that the history of the nuclear physics dates from the latter years of the nineteenth century when Henry Becqeurel in 1896 discovered the radioactivity. He was working with compounds containing the element uranium. Becqeurel found that photographic plates covered to keep out light became fogged, or partially exposed, when these uranium compounds were anywhere near the plates. Two years after Becquerel’s discovery, Pierre and Marie Curie in France and Rutherford in England succeeded in separating a naturally occurring radioactive element, radium (Z = 88), from the ore.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    QCD is the modern theory of the strong interaction. QCD, the theory of quarks, gluons and their interactions, is a self-contained part of the Standard Model (see below) of elementary particles. Historically its route is in nuclear physics and the description of ordinary matter—understanding what protons and neutrons are (and their structure) and how they interact. Nowadays QCD is used to describe most of what goes at high-energy accelerators.

  2. 2.

    With the aim of the ground of nature of isotope effect, a detailed analysis of the neutron and proton structure and their mutual transformation in the weak interaction process was conducted. Note that the main characteristics of isotope effect—the mass of free particles (proton and neutron)—does not conserve in the weak interaction process. This contradiction is removed although partly if we take into account the modern presentation [42–44] that the mass of proton (neutron) is created from quark condensate (not from constituent quarks [15, 44]) which is the coherent superposition of the states with different chirality. Thus the elucidation of the reason of origin of the nucleon mass is taken down to elucidation of the reason to break down the chiral symmetry in Quantum Chromodynamics [45–56].

  3. 3.

    Nuclei with the same N and different Z are called isotones, and nuclides with the same mass number A are known as isobars. In a symbolic representation of a nuclear specie or nuclide, it is usual to omit the N and Z subscripts and include only the mass number as a superscript, since A\(\,=\,\)N\(+\)Z and the symbol X represents the chemical elements.

  4. 4.

    If the two-body potential has an average strength of 20 MeV, then the three-body one would have a strength of about 1 MeV. We should add that all models have a one-pion exchange character at long range, which gives rise to a spin–spin central potential and a tensor term ( for details see [60, 81]).

  5. 5.

    In 1932 Heisenberg suggested [90] on the basis of the approximate of the proton and neutron mass (see also Table 2.2) that these particles might be considered as two different charge states of a single entity, the nucleon, formally equivalent to the up and down states of a spin 1/2 particle. To exploit this hypothesis the nucleon wave function in addition to a space and a spin component also has an isotopic spin (isospin) component (see, also e.g. [7]).

  6. 6.

    As is well known, the Standard Model [48–52, 54–56, 81, 97, 100] is a unified gauge theory of the strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions, the content of which is summarised by the group structure SU(3)\(\times \) SU(2)\(\times \) U(1), where SU(3) refers to the theory of strong interactions,QCD, and latter two factors [SU(2)\(\times \) U(1)] describe the theory of electroweak interactions. Although the theory remains incomplete, its development represents a triumph for modern physics (for details see [100] and below).

  7. 7.

    The first question that occurs is whether the quarks actually exist inside the hadrons or whether they are merely a convenient mathematical ingredient leading to the geometrical symmetry [7]. A substantial clue in this direction is obtained in deep inelastic scattering from nucleons [11–13]. The nucleon appears to be made up of to regions in the asymptotic-free regime [100–102] and the outer region of the meson cloud where pions and other heavy mesons can exist (see, also [103–108]). A number of early results on the internal proton structure became accessible through highly inelastic electron scattering carried out at the Stanford Linear Accelerator centre (SLAC). Later work of Kendell et al. [11–13] helped to identify these structures with quarks inside the proton (for details see also [109]).

  8. 8.

    As we know, nonrelativistic quark model use constituent quark masses, which are of order 350 MeV for u- and d-quarks. Constituent quark masses model the effect of dynamical chiral symmetry breaking are not related to the quark mass parameters \({m}_{q}\) of the QCD Lagrangian.

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Plekhanov, V. (2013). Sub-Nucleonic Structure and the Modern Picture of Isotopes. In: Isotopes in Condensed Matter. Springer Series in Materials Science, vol 162. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28723-7_2

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