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Innovation Management by Promoting the Informal pp 105–142Cite as

Management of the Informal by Cooperative Transfer of Experience

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Abstract

The approach “cooperative transfer of experience” stands for special access in the scope of knowledge and innovation management: The focus lies on structures that permit a new definition of targets, new combination of formal and informal possibilities for exchange and special support of the informal and experience-based exchange of implicit knowledge. Findings from recent research on innovation activities in plant and machine building are considered in the process: Innovations are based on a heterogeneous knowledge base, which must be elaborated and expanded beyond corporate limits through cooperative work. The approach accounts for this “knowledge base distributed across companies” as a central resource by going beyond knowledge processes realized in corporate and R&D departments. The cooperative transfer of experience is considered in this chapter in relation to agile development processes in software development and their suitability for the claims formulated above. It will then be discussed whether a new service ethic for accompanying such management of the informal is necessary.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    I would like to thank Marie Schwarz as well as Christian Zeller for supporting the empirical and conceptual work.

  2. 2.

    For information on technology and innovation from a historical and societal perspective, cf. Rammert 2008, p. 296 et seqq.

  3. 3.

    Social innovations can be described as the ability of an organization to renew itself and its behavior (Oeij et al. 2010, p. 1). For social innovations, also cf. Howaldt and Schwarz 2010, p. 11 et seqq.

  4. 4.

    This quote and the other quotations cited in the further course of this text are attributed to empirical findings at the project partner’s establishment. The interviews were transcribed and evaluated using qualitative methods. For improved readability, the quotes have been in part adopted in terms of their sense and not word for word.

  5. 5.

    An extensive explanation of agile project management with scrum is provided in Schwaber 2007 and 2008. Schwaber also describes the linking of the scrum developer team, which is a topic of discussion in this article, with an interdisciplinary “Enterprise Transition Team” and a scrum team responsible for implementation and change (Schwaber 2008, p. 14 et seq.).

  6. 6.

    In this and other contexts, the computer is also described as a boundary object in multiple respects as Keller writes: “[…] in a psychological, physical and sociological respect, it is an expression for combining contradictory elements, which have been kept apart previously: an ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ reality, material and immaterial aspects, working and playing, public and private, as-if worlds and functional worlds. With [the computer, added by the author] overcoming boundaries and moving things between the worlds appears to be possible.” (Keller 1998, p. 306).

  7. 7.

    This comes close to the result of a study by Adler, who answered the question as to how software developers succeeded in effectively managing their cooperation as follows: “They play. They play with one another, they play games, they play around with ideas, they develop games, they play at software development, they are playful sorts” (Keller 1998, p. 257). Sieber (2006) provided the following quote from her surveys, “[…] that one can play around with computers the best” (p. 108). She elaborates: “This software developer had already developed technical artifacts in childhood through playful learning that facilitated his use of computers” (at the place cited).

  8. 8.

    However, this is not a generally accepted status quo. On the contrary, zero error tolerance and exclusive acceptance of explicit and rational decisive expertise are the rule in many companies (cf. e.g. Bolte et al. 2008, p. 89 et seq.).

  9. 9.

    Agile development processes are associated with lean development as continuation of the principles of lean production or lean management (Graebsch et al. 2007; Sprengholz 2011), for which reason the method is also associated with a new “rationalization of mental work” (Boes 2010). If developers immerse themselves in the process in the manner described here with their artistic, experience-based and playful potentials, there is a risk of self-intensification and overworking of oneself, which goes unnoticed or is first noticed in late stages. Simonsmeier (1992) already pointed out in connection with immersion in work some time ago that people in the computer industry tend to put in a lot more overtime than in other industries. Those fascinated by their screen work are euphoric and stop thinking about other things.

  10. 10.

    The superiority of “organic” management in unstable, unpredictable environments, which agile approaches can be attributed to, are described by Burns and Stalker drawing on a highly vague form of maximization: “[…] any individual job should be as little defined as possible, so that it will ‘shape itself’ to his special abilities and initiative” (Burns and Stalker 2003, p. 47).

  11. 11.

    www.agilemanifesto.org, 08/03/2011.

  12. 12.

    Himmelreich 2006, p. 123 et seqq. conducts a discussion of the relationship between waterfall models and agile approaches. Schwaber describes how difficult it is to overcome the waterfall model: “The waterfall model results from the wishes of project managers, who want to conquer the topic of complexity with predictability. Every project manager has deeply incorporated the waterfall method and considers it to be correct. If people are asked to use scrum, this is very unsettling as it is considered to be high risk” (Schwaber 2008, p. 26).

  13. 13.

    In the case example, the conflict was apparent in that for some scrum is e.g. considered to be “highly agile” while other methods such as Feature Driven Development (FDD) are labeled as less agile. This book distances itself from such an assessment.

  14. 14.

    According to a study by Forrester Research, which is featured on the information platform Heise, scrum is considered to be the most widespread agile method. Nearly 11% of the 1,300 participants surveyed had contact with this method at one point or another (http://www.heise.de/developer/meldung/Studie-Agile-Softwareentwicklung-ist-Mainstream-912207.html).

  15. 15.

    Prototyping is generally concerned here. In this case example, however, it is referred to as a “product taking shape”. This is explored in greater detail in Sect. 6.4.5.

  16. 16.

    If the beginning of the project phase is difficult, this can be filled out by a senior manager or a ‘scrum consultant’.

  17. 17.

    Agile development processes primarily serve the technical and process-oriented side of development work (“technology”). For this reason, approaches must be taken for dealing with the ‘rigid’ structures in companies, which tend more to impair the self-organized work of the developer team than promote it. This must be accounted for with the approach of cooperative transfer of experience and the bridges formulated for the exchange of knowledge therein (“social aspects”). Studies already exist concerning experience-based work (Böhle 2009), experience-based cooperation and communication (Böhle and Bolte 2002; Porschen 2002; Bolte and Porschen 2006) as well as studies concerning experience-based project management (Böhle and Meil 2003). Their findings are adopted in this perspective.

  18. 18.

    Designed openness is described in further detail in the approach “Organization of the informal” just as it can be realized with different models (Bolte and Porschen 2006, p. 65 et seqq.).

  19. 19.

    With increased responsibility, critical consequences such as the dissolution of the line between work and private life or self intensification up to and including burn-out as a new widespread disease can occur, particularly in the sector of highly qualified work. The need for employees to assume, take responsibility and be involved is therefore one side of the coin. Prevention and intervention with respect to negative side effects are the other side (cf. Sect. 6.6).

  20. 20.

    James Grenning refers to estimation methods for the following command variables: on one hand, iteration planning as short-term and detailed planning as to how something should be implemented. On the other hand, release planning, which is allocated on a higher level and serves to cover a broader horizon. Planning is much less precise in this respect; it is about breaking the product down into doable parts. The topic therefore involves pegging out possibilities (Grenning 2002, p. 1). The other fundamental author of the approach, Cohn, differentiates between the following estimation methods: expert opinion, estimation using analogies and dissolution of a story into smaller parts, which are easier to estimate. He also describes various configurations for planning poker (Cohn 2005, p. 54 et seqq.).

  21. 21.

    In the scope of scrum and other agile approaches, the fable of “chickens” that perform daily work and “pigs” responsible for the success of the project are a metaphor for the balance of the various team member types. A balanced ratio should be in place in the team. Everyone has to do his or her part and has corresponding rights to have a say. The scrum method is also familiar with the “rooster” in addition to the “chicken” and “pig”, which is not as conducive to project success due to its puffed up conduct and uninformed, less than helpful comments.

  22. 22.

    Cf. in addition to “pair programming” Cockburn 2007, p. 105 et seqq., which depicts workplace settings with their respective opportunities for communication in detail.

  23. 23.

    In agile software development, contrary to classic procedural models, different aspects such as modeling (analysis and design) and development (test and programming) are not scheduled through allocation to phases. The four activities of software development (coding, testing, listening, designing) are rather encountered in each iteration of a lifecycle.

  24. 24.

    Findings, particularly from suggestopedia (Lozanov 1978) and “sensual learning” are integrated in the learning concepts in the context described herein. These concepts rely on the inclusion of all senses and different possibilities for perception, whereupon all information such as acoustics, kinaestethics etc. are also included. In the BMBF’s funding program, the research and development program “Lernkultur Kompetenzentwicklung” (learning culture for developing competencies), carried further as “Kompetenzentwicklung und lebensbegleitendes Lernen” (developing competencies and lifelong learning) was created especially to address the topic of learning in the work world.

  25. 25.

    http://scrummethodology.com/scrum-meetings/, 09/22/2011.

  26. 26.

    The discussion contribution on “self-portrayal balances” goes back to Christian Zeller (Zeller 2011).

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  1. ISF München e.V., Jakob-Klar-Str. 9, Munich, Germany

    Stephanie Porschen

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  1. Philosophisch-Sozialwissenschaftliche Fa, Sozioökonomie der Arbeits- und Berufswel, Universität Augsburg, Eichleitnerstraße 30 2, Augsburg, 86159, Germany

    Fritz Böhle

  2. Philosophisch-Sozialwissenschaftliche Fa, Sozioökonomie der Arbeits- und Berufswel, Universität Augsburg, Eichleitnerstraße 30 2, Augsburg, 86159, Germany

    Markus Bürgermeister

  3. ISF München e.V., Jakob-Klar-Str. 9, Munich, Germany

    Stephanie Porschen

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Porschen, S. (2012). Management of the Informal by Cooperative Transfer of Experience. In: Böhle, F., Bürgermeister, M., Porschen, S. (eds) Innovation Management by Promoting the Informal. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28015-3_6

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