Intellectual Property, Culture, and Development

Olwan, Rami M.

doi:10.1007/978-3-642-27907-2_4

Rami M. Olwan²

2104 Accesses

Abstract

The previous chapter examined the correlation between IP and the economic development of developing countries. However, it is not sufficient to examine IP and development merely from an economic perspective. It is important to go beyond the economic theory of IP and consider IP from the perspective of culture and social development. While other perspectives may also be relevant, adopting a cultural perspective is an important step towards formulating a broader theory of IP and development. Understanding culture is important in structuring an IP system that takes into consideration local conditions and the interests of developing countries. This chapter examines the relevance of culture and local contexts to the IP debate. Taking the Islamic and Arab world as a case study, it examines the relevance of culture in shaping people’s attitudes toward IP, particularly copyright. Culture plays an important role in influencing how people perceive and enforce IP. The chapter calls for adoption of a cultural policy of IP by developing countries to better serve their social and economic development needs and objectives.

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Notes

1.
Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegalese poet), Culture Auction Floor A Match for Development (2010) European Union <http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/infopoint/publications/europeaid/documents/177a_culture_auction_floor_booklet_en.pdf>.
2.
Lawrence M. Friedman, ‘Legal Culture and Social Development’ (1969) 4 (1) Law and Society Law Review 29, 41.
3.
Mohammed El Said, The Development of Intellectual Property Law in the Arab Countries (Edwin Mellen, 2008).
4.
Ibid.
5.
Ibid.
6.
See also, generally, the following research that studies IP beyond an economic perspective:
Ruth L Gana (Okediji), ‘The Myth of Development, the Progress of Rights: Human Rights to Intellectual Property and Development’ (1996) 18 Law and Policy Law Journal 315; Denis Borges Barbosa, Margaret Chon, and Andres Moncayo von Hase, ‘Slouching Towards Development in International Intellectual Property’ (2007) 1 Michigan State Law Review 71, 75 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1081366>; Ruth Gana Okediji, ‘Copyright and Public Welfare in Global Perspective’ (1999-2000) 7 Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 117, 181; Peter Drahos, An Alternative Framework for the Global Regulation of Intellectual Property Rights Centre for Governance of Knowledge and Development Working Paper (October 2005) <https://www.anu.edu.au/fellows/pdrahos/articles/pdfs/2005analternativeframework.pdf>; Margaret Chon, ‘Intellectual Property and the Development Divide’ (2006) 27 Cardozo Law Review 2821, 2835 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=894162>; Margaret Chon, ‘Intellectual Property ‘From Below’: Copyright and Capability for Education’ (2007) 40 University California Davis Law Review 803 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=971294>; Lea Shaver, ‘The Right to Science and Culture’ (2010) Wisconsin Law Review 121, 160 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1354788>.
7.
Madhavi Sunder, ‘IP3’ (2006) 59 Stanford Law Review 257, 285; Michael F. Brown, ‘Can Culture Be Copyrighted’ (1998) 39 (2) Current Anthropology 193-222.
8.
Rosemary J. Coombe, The Culture Life of Intellectual Properties (Duke University, 1998). See also Peter Krapp, ‘The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties: Authorship, Appropriation, and the Law’ (2004) 58 Cultural Critique, 198-201 <http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/cultural_critique/v058/58.1krapp.pdf>; Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘Legal Claims to Culture in and against the Market: Neoliberalism and the Global Proliferation of Meaningful Different’ (2005) Law, Culture and the Humanities 1, 35-52; Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘Tenth Anniversary Symposium: New Direction: Critical Cultural Studies’ (1998) 10 Yale Journal of Law and Humanities 463; Nicole Aylwin, Rosemary J. Coombe and Anita Chan, Intellectual Property, Cultural Heritage and Rights-Based Development: Geographical Indication as Vehicles for Sustainable Livelihoods, York University <http://www.yorku.ca>; Rosemary Coombe, ‘Is There a Cultural Studies of Law’ in Toby Miller (ed), A Companion to Cultural Studies (Blackwell, 2006) <http://www.yorku.ca/rcoombe/publications/Coombe_Cultural_Studies_of_Law.pdf>. See also Susan S Silbey, ‘Making a Place for Cultural Analysis of Law’ (1992) 17 (1) Law and Social Inquiry 39-48 <http://web.mit.edu/anthropology/faculty_staff/silbey/pdf/25cultural.pdf>; Lawrence Liang, ‘Piracy, Creativity and Infrastructure’, in Ramesh Subramanian and Eddan Katz (eds), The Global Flow of Information (New York University, 2011) 54-89; Mario Biagioli, Peter Jaszi and Martha Woodmansee, Making and Unmaking of Intellectual Property (ed), (University of Chicago, 2011) 80-132.
9.
Alan Story, Colin Darch and Debora Halbert, The Copy/South Dossier-Issues in the Economics, Politics, and Ideology of Copyright in the Global South (2006) The Copy/South Research Group, 61 <http://www.copysouth.org/en/documents/csdossier.pdf>; Daniel Burkitt, ‘Copyrighting Culture—the History and Cultural Specificity of the Western Model of Copyright’ (2001) 2 (2) Intellectual Property Quarterly 146; William P. Alford, To Steal a Book is an Elegant Offense (Stanford University, 1995) 9-29.
10.
See for explanation of those terms, Dzenan Sahovic, ‘Accessing the Socio-Cultural Viability of Rule of Law Policies in Post-Conflict Societies’ in Amanda Perry Kessaris (ed), Law in the Pursuit of Development: Principle into Practice? (Routledge-Cavendish, 2010), 245; Patrick H. Hu, ‘Mickey Mouse in China: Legal and Cultural Implications in Protecting U.S. Copyrights’ (1996) 14 (81) Boston University International Law Journal 1196; Nelson C. Lu, ‘To Steal a Book Is No Longer Such an Elegant Offence: The Impact of Recent Changes in Taiwanese Copyright Law’ (1998) 5 Asian Law Journal 289; Sanqiang Qu, ‘A Dilemma for Feudal China to Launch a Copyright in the Late 19th Century’ (2010) 5 (3) Frontiers of Law in China, 319, 322.
11.
See explanations of the ideologies of the South, Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 71; Hu, above n 10; Lu, above n 10; Qu, above n 10; Burkitt, above n 9; Brown, above n 7; Alford, above n 9, ch 2.
12.
Madhavi Sunder, ‘Cultural Dissent’ (2001) 54 Stanford Law Review 495, 498 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=304619>.
13.
Tormer Broude, Conflicts and Complementarity in Trade, Cultural Diversity and Intellectual Property Rights 12 (July 2007) WorldTradeLaw.net <http://www.worldtradelaw.net/articles/broudecomplementarity.pdf>.
14.
World Bank, Legal Culture and Judicial Reform <http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTLAWJUSTINST/Resources/LegalCultureBrief.pdf>.
15.
Ali Acar, The Concept of Legal Culture with Particular Attention to the Turkish Case (2 February 2010) Civil Law Network <http://civillawnetwork.wordpress.com/2010/02/02/the-concept-of-legal-culture-with-particular-attention-to-the-turkish-case/>.
16.
Broude, above n 13, 11.
17.
See also Bruce Moore, The Australian Oxford Dictionary (Oxford University, 2nd, 2004).
18.
Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson (eds), The Oxford Concise English Dictionary (Oxford University, 11th ed, 2009). See also Michael King, ‘Comparing Legal Cultures in the Quest for Law’s Identity’ in David Nelken (ed), Comparing Legal Cultures (Dartmouth, 1997) 119,121.
19.
A. Delbridge et al. (eds), The Macquarie Dictionary (Macquarie Library, 5th ed 2009).
20.
The Merriam Webster Dictionary <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture>.
21.
King, above n 18. See also, for the definition of culture, Acar, above n 15.
22.
Kenneth H. Rubin and Melissa Menzer, Culture and Social Development (6 January 2010) <http://www.enfant-encyclopedie.com/pages/PDF/Rubin-MenzerANGxp.pdf>.
23.
Ruth Benedict, Race, Science and Politics (New York: University, 1959) 13, cited in Sunder, above n 12, 512.
24.
Jay Gabler, Sociology for Dummies (John Wiley & Sons 2010) 82. See also Charlene M. Solomon, Managing Across Culture (McGraw Hill, 2009) ch 3.
25.
Dennis O’Neil, Human Culture: What is Culture (26 May 2006) <http://anthro.palomar.edu/culture/culture_1.htm>.
26.
Roger Scruton, Culture Counts—Faith and Feeling in a World Besieged (Encounter Books, 2007) 2.
27.
Clifford Geertz (1973), The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books), cited in Christopher Ray, ‘Culture, Intellectual Property and Territorial Rural Development’ (1998) 38 (1) Sociologia Ruralis <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9523.00060/pdf>.
28.
UNESCO, Ten Keys to the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001495/149502e.pdf>.
29.
Franz Boas, ‘The Mind of Primitive Man’, (1938), 159, cited in Sunder, above n 12, 512. See also Clifford Geertz, ‘Thick Description: Toward an Interpretative Theory of Culture’ in Anthropology in Theory (Basic Blackwell Publishing Books, 2006) 236.
30.
Margaret Mead, Cooperation and Competition among Primitive Peoples (1937), 17, cited in Sunder, above n 12.
31.
Clyde Kluckhohn, ‘Mirror for Man’, cited in Geertz, above n 29, 236. See also Jane E. Anderson, Law, Knowledge, Culture–The Production of Indigenous Knowledge in Intellectual Property Law (Edward Elgar, 2009) 190.
32.
Edward Sapir, ‘Language’ (1921), 221, cited in Sunder, above n 12, 512; Anderson, above n 31.
33.
Professor Lawrence M. Friedman is founder of the law and society movement in North America; see Lawrence M Friedman <http://www.law.stanford.edu/directory/profile/23/>.
34.
Lawrence M. Friedman, ‘Is there a Modern Legal Culture’ (1994) 7 (2) Ratio Juris 118. See also Lawrence M Friedman, above n 2, 29; Roger Cotterrell, ‘The Concept of Legal Culture’ in David Nelken (ed), Comparing Legal Cultures (Dartmouth, 1997) 15, 34, 35; Acar, above n 15.
35.
Friedman, above n 2, 34.
36.
There are various other types of ‘legal culture’, including ‘modern legal culture’, ‘Western legal culture’, ‘emergent legal culture’, and ‘array of cultures’. See Cotterrell, above n 34, 16.
37.
Acar, above n 15.
38.
J. H. Merryman and D.S. Clark, Comparative Law: Western European and Latin American Legal Systems (Bobbs Merrill, 1978) 29, cited in Anthony Ogus, The Importance of Legal Infrastructure for Regulation (and Deregulation) in Developing Countries, Centre on Regulation and Competition Working Paper Series No. 65 (June 2004), Centre on Regulation and Competition <http://www.competition-regulation.org.uk/publications/working_papers/WP65.pdf>.
39.
Cotterrell, above n 34, 26.
40.
Ibid 14; Roger Cotterrell, Law, Culture and Society (Ashgate Publishing, 2006) 81.
41.
Cotterrell, above n 34.
42.
King, above n 18, 126-127.
43.
Even outside the legal arena, social science scholars have also criticised the concept as follows:

The concepts of culture and legal culture are of limited explanatory value for sociological studies. As many anthropologists and sociologists have noted, culture is an amorphous term, covering an indeterminate range of phenomena: it is a kind of aggregate, useful to refer in general terms to a broad swath of experiences of impressions of a place or time. But it does not indicate precise variables.

See Cotterrell, above n 40, 8.
44.
Friedman, above n 2, 38.
45.
Ugo Matteti, ‘Three Patterns of Law: Taxonomy and Change in the World’s Legal Systems’ (1997) 45(1) The American Journal of Comparative Law 5, 11 <http://www.jstor.org/stable/840958>. See also Benny Simon Tabalujan, Legal Development in Developing Countries—The Role of Legal Culture, (2001) SSRN <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=268564>.
46.
See Richard E. Vaughan, ‘Defining Terms in the Intellectual Property Protection Debate: Are the North and South Arguing Past Each Other When We Say ‘Property’? A Lockean, Confucian, and Islamic Comparison’ (1996) 2 Journal of International and Comparative Law 307, 335; James W. Peters, ‘Toward Negotiating a Remedy to Copyright Piracy in Singapore’ (1986) 7 Northwestern Journal of International Law & Business, 561, 587; R.P. Anand, New States and International Law (Hope India, 2 ed, 2008) 49.
47.
Cotterrell, above n 40, 102, 105.
48.
Cotterrell, above n 34, 25.
49.
World Bank, above n 14.
50.
Amartya Sen, How Does Culture Matter? (March 2002) <http://www.cscs.res.in/dataarchive/textfiles/textfile.2009-08-24.9377468545/file>.
51.
Ibid 4.
52.
Madhavi Sunder, Beyond Economic Analysis of Intellectual Property: The Need for Social and Cultural Theory (9 March 2009) University of Chicago Law School <http://uchicagolaw.typepad.com/faculty/2009/03/beyond-economic-analysis-of-intellectual-property-the-need-for-social-and-cultural-theory-madhavi-su.html> ; see also UNESCO, above n 28.
53.
See for explanation of ‘culture diversity’ and IP, Broude, above n 13, 15.
54.
Sarah Radcliffe, ‘Culture in Development Thinking: Geographies, Actors, and Paradigms’, 1-8, cited in Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘The Expanding Purview of Cultural Properties and their Politics’ (2009) 5 Annual Review of Law and Social Science 393, 395.
55.
Coombe, above n 54.
56.
Rosemary Coombe, Cultural Rights and Intellectual Property Debates (22 Spril 2005) Carnegie Council <http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_12/section_3/5152.html>.
57.
Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘Legal Claims to Culture in and against the Market: Neo-liberalism and the Global Proliferation of Meaningful Difference’ (2005) Law Culture and the Humanities 35 <http://www.yorku.ca/robarts/projects/global/papers/gcf_legalclaims.pdf>.
58.
Sunder, above n 52; European Commission (EC), Culture and Social and Human Development <http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/system/files/briefing_note_cult_en.pdf>; Justin VanFleet, ‘Protecting Knowledge’ (19 June 2003) Carnegie Council <http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/resources/publications/dialogue/2_09/articles/942.html>.
59.
European Commission, above n 58.
60.
Ibid.
61.
James Boyle, ‘A Manifesto on WIPO and the Future of Intellectual Property’ (2004) 9 Duke Law and Technology Review 10 <http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1113&context=dltr>.
62.
See, for criticism of the concept, David W. Opderbeck, ‘Deconstructing Jefferson’s Candle: Towards a Critical Realist Approach to Culture Environmentalism and Information Policy’ Seton Hal Public Research Paper (2008) SSRN, 18-19 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1091024>.
63.
James Boyle, ‘Cultural Environmentalism?’, Columnists (online), 20 February 2006 <http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/cc8e24ce-a242-11da-9096-0000779e2340.html>; James Boyle, ‘A Politics of Intellectual Property: Environmentalism for the Net?’ (2007) 47 Duke Law Journal 87 <http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?47+Duke+L.+J.+87>. See also Stanford Internet and Society Law Center, Cultural Environmentalism <http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/conferences/cultural/>.
64.
The ‘free culture’ movement is explained further in the ‘culture manifesto’ that recognises that:

The mission of the Free Culture movement is to build a bottom-up, participatory structure to society and culture, rather than a top-down, closed, proprietary structure. Through the democratizing power of digital technology and the internet, we can place the tools of creation and distribution, communication and collaboration, teaching and learning into the hands of the common person -- and with a truly active, connected, informed citizenry, injustice and oppression will slowly but surely vanish from the earth.

See Freeculture.org, Free Culture Manifesto <http://wiki.freeculture.org/Free_Culture_Manifesto>.
65.
Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture, The Nature and Future of Creativity (Penguin, 2004).
66.
See Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Market and Freedom (Yale University, 2006).
67.
Ibid.
68.
Peter K. Yu, ‘Four Commons Misconceptions about Copyright Piracy’ (2003) 25 Loyola of Los Angeles International and Comparative Law Review 127, 131.
69.
John Carroll, ‘Intellectual Property Rights in the Middle East: A Cultural Perspective’ (2001) 11 (3) Fordham Intellectual Property and Entertainment Law Journal 555, 557.
70.
Molly Beutz Land, Intellectual Property Rights and the Right to Participate in Cultural Life (November 2008) SSRN <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1475430>.
71.
Coombe, above n 56.
72.
Jack M. Balkin, ‘Digital Speech and Democratic Culture: A Theory of Freedom of Expression for the Information Society’ (2004) 79 New York Law Review 1, 37 <http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/telecom/digitalspeechanddemocraticculture.pdf>.
73.
Opderbeck, above n 62.
74.
See Rick Carnes, Copyright is Crucial for Culture: Strong Intellectual-Property Rights Have Helped the Arts and the Economy Allbusiness <http://www.allbusiness.com>.
75.
Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture (The Penguin, 2004); William W. Fisher, Promises to Keep Technology, Law, and the Future of Entertainment (Stanford University, 2004); Peter Biddle et al., The Darkest and the Future of Content Distributions (18 November 2002) Bearcave <http://www.bearcave.com/misl/misl_tech/msdrm/darknet.htm>. See also, Niva Elkin-Koren and Neil Weinstock Netanel (eds), (Kluwer, 2002) 79-106; Jessica Litman, Digital Copyright (Prometheus Books, 2001) 179. Urs Gasser and Silke Ernst, From Shakespeare to Dj danger Mouse: A Quick Look at Copyright User Creativity in the Digital Age (2006), Berkman Center for Internet and Society; Pamela Samuelson, Preliminary Thoughts in Copyright Reform, (2007) SSRN, <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1002676>.
76.
Carnes, above n 74.
77.
Professor Yochai Benkler uses the term ‘legal culture’ and defines it as ‘the beliefs of judges, the practices of lawyers’. See Benkler, above n 66, 116.
78.
Ibid 275.
79.
Ibid 439.
80.
Sunder, above n 52.
81.
Sunder, above n 7, 257, 312.
82.
Land, above n 70.
83.
Ibid.
84.
Brian Fitzgerald, ‘Copyright 2010: The Future of Copyright Law’ in Brian Fitzgerald (ed) et al., Copyright Law, Digital Content and the Internet in the Asia–Pacific (Sydney University, 2008) 173.
85.
Jessica Litman, ‘Copyright Noncompliance’ (or Why We Can’t ‘Just Say Yes’ to Licensing) (1997) 29 New York University Journal of International Law and Policy 237 <http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jdlitman/papers/no.htm>. See also Fisher, above n 75, 199-256; Boyle, above n 61, 10.
86.
Jessica Lee Rayman, The Rhetoric of Intellectual Property: Copyright Law and Regulation of Digital Culture (Routledge, 2009) 142.
87.
Yu, above n 68.
88.
Sunder, above n 7, 257, 260. See also Alford, above n 9.
89.
Sunder, above n 52.
90.
Sunder, above n 7, 324, 325.
91.
Nicole Aylwin, Moving from Property towards Policy: Intellectual Property as Cultural Policy (16 February 2009) IP Osgoode <http://www.iposgoode.ca/2009/02/moving-from-property-towards-policy/>.
92.
Ibid.
93.
Margret Chon, ‘Intellectual Property and the Development Divide’ (2006) 27 Cardozo Law Review 2821, 2835; Margaret Chon ‘Intellectual Property ‘From Below’: Copyright and Capability for Education’, (2007) 40 University California Davis Law Review 803 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=971294>. See generally also, Friedman, above n 2, 30.
94.
Professor Roger Cotterrell noted that:

There is an increased interest by various legal scholars in studying legal rules from broader perspectives including sociological and cultural. As one scholar has noted, ‘an adequate understanding of legal ideas - for lawyers, no less than for other citizens - is impossible without adopting a sociological perspective, a perspective informed by social theory.

Cotterrell, above n 40, 3.
95.
See Erica-Irene A. Daes, The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Intellectual Property and Cultures (25 May 2004) Museum of Sydney, Australia <http://www.hreoc.gov.au/about/media/speeches/social_justice/indigenous_ip.html>.
96.
Doris Estelle Long, ‘The Impact of Foreign Investment on Indigenous Culture: An Intellectual Property Perspective’ (1998) 23 North Carolina Journal of International Law & Commercial Regulation 229, 245.
97.
Ibid 279. Marilyn Strathern, ‘Social Inventions’ in Mario Biagioli, Peter Jaszi and Martha Woodmansee, Making and Unmaking of Intellectual Property (ed), (University of Chicago, 2011) 99, 100.
98.
Ibid 230.
99.
Rosemary Coombe, In Conversation with Lawrence Liang, York University <http://www.yorku.ca/rcoombe/publications/interview.pdf>.
100.
See for support, Madhavi Sunder, ‘Intellectual Property and Identity Politics: Playing with Fire’ (2000) 4 The Journal of Gender, Race and Justice 69, 74 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=279318>; Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘Cultural Agencies’ in Biagioli, Jaszi and Woodmansee, above n 97, 81, 93.
101.
See, for explanation of those views, especially in relation to copyright, Rosemary J. Coombe, ‘Fear, Hope, and Longing for the Future of Authorship and a Revitalized Public Domain in Global Regimes of Intellectual Property’ (2003) 52 DePaul Law Review 1171 <http://www.yorku.ca/rcoombe/publications/Fear_Hope_and_Longing.pdf>; Sunder, above n 100; J. Janewa OseiTutu, ‘A Sui Generis Regime for Traditional Knowledge: The Cultural Divide in Intellectual Property Law’, (2010) 12 Marquette Intellectual Property Law Review , 145, 184 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1574996>; Djims Milius, ‘Justifying Intellectual Property in Traditional Knowledge’ (2009) 2 Intellectual Property Quarterly 185, 200; Marc Perlman, “From ‘Folklore’ to ‘Knowledge’ in Global Governance” in Biagioli, Jaszi and Woodmansee, above n 97, 101, 121; Marilyn Strathern, ‘Social Inventions’ in Biagioli, Jaszi and Woodmansee, above n 97, 97, 102.
102.
Branislav Hazucha, Intellectual Property and Cultural Diversity: Two Views on the Relationship between Market and Culture, SSRN 8 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1470103>; Coombe, above n 57, 35-52.
103.
Coombe, above n 99.
104.
Long, above n 96, 280.
105.
VanFleet, above n 58.
106.
Sunder, above n 100, 74.
107.
Rosemary J. Coombe, First National Intangible Cultural Heritage Concerns: Prospects for Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Traditional Cultural Expression in International Law 255 York Univesity <http://www.yorku.ca/rcoombe/publications/RCoombe-BellChapter8.pdf>.
108.
Anderson, above n 31, 188.
109.
Land, above n 70.
110.
In relation to TCEs, it is not clear who is the author of TCEs and whether the protection period in most copyright laws (50 years after the author’s death) would be enough to protect TCEs. This question and others might be better addressed under a sui generis regime. See also Wend B. Wendland, ‘Intellectual Property, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore: WIPO’s Exploratory Program’ (2002) 33 (4) International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law 485-504.
111.
Long, above n 96, 269-270. See also Teshager Worku Dagne, Law and Policy of Intellectual Property, Traditional Knowledge and Development: Legally Protecting Creativity and Collective Rights in Traditional Knowledge-Based Agricultural Products through Geographical Indication (2010) (11) (1) Estey Centre Journal of International Law and Trade Policy, SSRN <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1600293>; Coombe, above n 107.
112.
Burkitt, above n 9, 181.
113.
Erica-Irene A. Daes notes that:

The real issue is not the problem of defining Indigenous cultural and intellectual property, nor of agreeing that the heritage of Indigenous peoples, should in principle, be protected by law, like other property. The real issue is enforcement, where disputes routinely cross international frontiers, and generally involve parties with vastly different levels of power, information and financial resources.

Daes, above n 95.
114.
Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 71.
115.
WIPO, Traditional Knowledge–Operational Terms and Definitions, WIPO/GRTKF/IC/3/9 (20 May 2002) <http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/tk/en/wipo_grtkf_ic_3/wipo_grtkf_ic_3_9.pdf>; WIPO, Traditional Knowledge, Genetic Resources and Traditional Cultural Expressions/Folklore <http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/>. See also Ataur Rahman, Development of an Integrated Traditional Scientific Knowledge Base: A Mechanism for Accessing, Benefit Sharing and Documenting Traditional Knowledge for Sustainable Soci—Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation– Prepared for Expert Meeting on Systems and National Experiences for Protecting Traditional Knowledge, Innovation and Practices Geneva, Switzerland, 30 October–1 November 2000 (UNCTAD) <http://www.unctad.org/trade_env/docs/rahman.pdf>.
116.
See the definition of Canadaian government, Copyright Reform Process <http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/crp-prda.nsf/eng/rp01101.html>.
117.
WIPO, Traditional Cultural Expressions (folklore) <http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/folklore/>; Zhiwen Liang, ‘Traditional Cultural Expression and the Public Domain under Chinese Copyright Law and Practice’ (2010) 4 (6) European Intellectual Property Law Review 632, 641; OseiTutu, above n 101, 180.
118.
OseiTutu, above n 101, 183. See also Liang, above n 117, 636.
119.
WIPO, above n 115. See also Rahman, above n 115.
120.
Ibid.
121.
WIPO, Intergovernmental Committee <http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/igc/index.html>.
122.
Coombe, above n 54.
123.
TRIPS do not have specific provisions that deal with ‘cultural works’ or traditional knowledge (TK), but they are protected under various forms of IP. See Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, opened for signature 15 April 1994, 1867 (entered into force 1 January 1995), Annex 1C Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), part 2. See for explanation of TRIPS, Coombe, above n 107.
124.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), open for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 143 (entered into force on 29 December 1993) <http://www.cbd.int/convention/convention.shtml>; <http://www.cbd.int/>. See for explanation of CBD, Coombe, above n 107.
125.
Convention on the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), open for signature on 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 1 (entered into force on April 2006) <http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=EN&pg=00022>.
126.
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (DCE), open for signature on 20 October 2005, 2440 UNTS 311 (entered into force on 18 March 2007) <http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=31038&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html>.
127.
WIPO, Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expression/ Folklore <http://www.wipo.int/freepublications/en/tk/913/wipo_pub_913.pdf>.
128.
See the lists of countries signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (CBD) available here <http://www.cbd.int/information/parties.shtml>.
129.
Intangible cultural heritage can include (a) oral traditions and expressions (language); (b) performing arts; (c) social practices, rituals, and festive events; (d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; (e) traditional craftsmanship. See (ICH), above n 125, art 2 (2).
130.
Ibid art 11.
131.
Ibid art 16.
132.
The DCE, above n 126, preamble.
133.
Broude, above n 13, 12.
134.
Ibid.
135.
Mark F. Schultz, Copynorms: Copyright Law and Social Norms, Escholarship <http://escholarship.org/uc/item/7c94551s>.
136.
Lawrence Lessig, ‘The New Chicago School, Social Norms, Social Meaning, and the Economic Analysis of Law’ (1998) 27 (2) The Journal of Legal Studies 661, 663.
137.
Geoffrey Neri, ‘Sticky Fingers or Sticky Norms? Unauthorized Music Downloading and Unsettled Social Norms’ (2005) 93 Georgetown Law Journal 733, 746. See also Emmanuelle Fauchart and Eric Von Hippel, Norms-based Intellectual Property Systems: The Case of French Chefs, 5 <http://www2.druid.dk/conferences/viewpaper.php?id=242&cf=8>; Robert B. Cialdini et al., ‘A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct: A Theoretical Refinement and Revaluation of the Role of Norms in Human Behaviour’ (1991) 24 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 201, cited in Schultz, above n 135, 11, 12.
138.
Richard H. McAdams, ‘The Origin, Development, and Regulation of Norms’ (1997) 96 (2) Michigan Law Review 338, 340.
139.
Tai-Heng Cheng, ‘Power, Norms, and International Intellectual Property Law’ (2006) 28 Michigan Journal of International Law 109, 123, 124.
140.
Cialdini, cited in Schultz, above n 135, 11-12.
141.
Ibid.
142.
Schultz, above n 135, 11.
143.
Fauchart and Hippel, above n 137. See also Matt Haughey, Lawrence Solum on Copynorms (15 August 2003) Creative Commons <https://creativecommons.org/weblog/entry/3805>.
144.
Neri, above n 137, 748. See also Yuval Feldman and Janice Nadeler, ‘The Law and Norms of File Sharing’ (2006) 43 San Diego Law Review 577, 591 <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=799364>.
145.
See, for further explanation of social norms, Tim Wu, ‘When Code isn’t Law’ (2003) 89 (4) Virginia Law Review 679, 723-726; Jessica Litman, ‘Sharing and Stealing’ (2004) 27 (1) Hasting Communication and Entertainment Law Journal, 1; Cheng, above n 139.
146.
Schultz, above n 135, 38.
147.
As L. Ray Petterson and Stanley W Lindberg noted:

Most [people] think of law as consisting of written rules in the form of legislative statute or court decisions. But law also grows out of what people actually do, that is, out of custom. Even the most comprehensive legal statute is skeletal in content, while court decisions tend to be fact-intensive (resolving disputes between litigants over specific, concrete issues). Between these two poles, therefore, there is an enormous amount of room for private action, and consistent private action can essentially “make” law by reshaping existing customs (or even creating new ones) that may subsequently be honoured by the courts.

L. Ray Petterson and Stanley W. Lindberg, The Nature of Copyright (University Of Georgia, 1991) 9, 10.
148.
Mark F. Schultz, ‘Fear and Norms and Rock and Roll: What Jambrands Can Teach US About Persuading People to Obey Copyright Law’ (2006) 21 Berkeley Technological Law Journal 651, 694.
149.
Schultz, above n 135, 38.
150.
Heba A. Raslan, ‘Shari’a and the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights, the Example of Egypt’ (2007) 47 IDEA: Intellectual Property Law Review 497; Muhammad Amanullah, ‘Author’s Copyright: An Islamic Perspective’ (2006) Journal of World Intellectual Property 301; Amir H. Khoury, ‘Ancient and Islamic Sources of Intellectual Property Protection in the Middle East: a Focus on Trademarks’ (2003) 43 IDEA: Intellectual Property Law Review 151; Ida Madieha bt. Abdul Ghani Azmi, ‘The Philosophy of Intellectual Property Rights over Ideas in Cyberspace: a Comparative Analysis between the Western Jurisprudence and the Sharai’ah’ (2004) 19 Arab Law Quarterly 191; Jonathan A. Claypod, ‘Islamic Law and Modern Patent Law’ (2007) 14 CASRIP’s Newsletter<http://www.law.washington.edu/Casrip/Newsletter/default.aspx?year=2007&article=newsv14i2Claypool>; Silvia Beltrameti, ‘The Legality of Intellectual Property Rights under Islamic Law’ in Mach, T. et al. (eds), The Prague Yearbook of Comparative Law (Prague, 2010) 55-94. <http://www.digitalislam.eu/article.do?articleId=2729>; Qais Ali Mahafzah, Bassem Melhem and Histham A Haloosh, ‘The Perspective of Moral and Financial Rights of Intellectual Property in Islam’(2009) 23 Arab Law Quarterly 457, 461; Sajjad Chowdhry, Intellectual Property in Islam ( 6 March 2006) Dinar Standard <http://dinarstandard.com/leadership/intellectual-property-rights-in-islam/#>; Mustafa Salman Habib, Copyrights Under Islamic Law < http://mshabib.tripod.com/page6.html >.
151.
Ugo Mattei, ‘Three Patterns of Law: Taxonomy and Change in the World’s Legal Systems’ (1997) 45 American Journal of Comparative Law, 39. Anthony Ogus also notes that:

The main characteristics of the indigenous law are: a strong foundation in a particular, often hierarchical, social structure; family or kinship groups, then individuals as the principle legal “units”; and a high level of discretion in decision markets

See Read, J.S. ‘Law in Africa: Back to the Future’ in I. Edge (ed), Comparative Law in Global Perspective, (Ardsley, N.Y: Transnational, 2000) ch 7, cited in Anthony Ogus, The Importance of Legal Infrastructure for Regulation (and Deregulation) in Developing Countries <http://www.competition-regulation.org.uk/publications/working_papers/WP65.pdf>.
above n 2.
152.
Carroll, above n 69, 583.
153.
Quran, Surah al-An`am, (the cattle) 6:38.
154.
Quran, Surah al-Nahal, (the bee) 16:89.
155.
Abdel Hameed M. Bashir, ‘Property Rights, Institutions and Economic Development: An Islamic Perspective’ (2002) 18 (3) Hummonics 75, 82.
156.
Muzammil H. Siddiqi, Ethics of Shari`ah and Our Responsibility (28 July 2005) Islamic Champer <http://islamicchamper.wordpress.com/2012/04/30/ethics-of-shariah-and-our-responsibility/>.
157.
Habib, above n 150.
158.
Quran, Surah al-Nahal, (the bee) 16:90.
159.
James J. Heckman, Robert L. Nelson and Lee Cabatingan, Global Perspective on the Rule of Law (Routledge, 2009) 89.
160.
Carroll, above n 69, 586.
161.
Beltrameti, above n 150.
162.
Some Muslims believe that smoking is not considered as haram based on the recent Fatwas that regard it as such.
163.
Ibid.
164.
Elsayed M.H Omran, Islam, ‘The Qur’an and the Arabic Literature’ (1988) 14 (1) Al Serat, <http://www.al-islam.org/al-serat/arabic.htm>.
165.
Ibid; Akiko Motoyoshi Sumi, Description in Classical Arabic Poetry: Wasf, Ekphrasis, and Interarts Theory (Brill Academic, 2003).
166.
See ‘Arabic literature.’ Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition (Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, 2012) <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31722/Arabic-literature>.
167.
Omran, above n 164. See also Khoury, above n 150, 151.
168.
Khoury, above n 150, 155.
169.
Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 63.
170.
Azami, (1977), cited in Yunus Yusoff, Roslan Ismail and Zainuddin Hassan, ‘Adopting Hadith Verification into Digital Evidence Authorisation’ (2010) 6 (5) Journal of Computer Science 484, 485.
171.
Chowdhry, above n 150; Beltrameti, above n 150.
172.
Yusoff, Ismail and Hassan, above n 170. See also G.H. A. Juynboll, Encyclopaedia of Canonical Hadith (Brill, 2007) ch 1.
173.
Yusoff, Ismail and Hassan, above n 170.
174.
See Ammer al-Kaswani, ‘Intellectual Property 32’ (El Warrak Institute, 1998) 36, cited in Khoury, above n 150, 183.
175.
Khoury, above n 150, 185.
176.
Qaiser Iqbal, Intellectual Property Rights and Islam, A Research Paper submitted to the International Management Sciences, International Islamic University (2009), 76 <http://www.iefpedia.com/english/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Intellectual-Property-Rights-and-Islam.pdf>.
177.
Ibid.
178.
Amanullah, above n 150, 302.
179.
See also Gustave E. von Grunebaum, ‘The Concept of Plagiarism in Arabic Theory’ (1994) 3 (4) Chicago Journals of Near Eastern Studies 234.
180.
Ibid.
181.
Iqbal, above n 176, 77.
182.
Heckman, Nelson and Cabatingan, above n 159.
183.
Bashir, above n 155, 78.
184.
See Mahafzah, Melhem and Haloosh, above n 150; Chowdhry, above n 150; Beltrameti, above n 150.
185.
Quran, Surah al-Baqarah, (the cow) 2:188. See also Muhammad Muhsin Khar and Taqi-id Bin al Hilalti, Interpretation of the Meanings of the Noble Quran (2nd ed, Darussalam, 2007).
186.
Ibid.
187.
Hadith, Farwell Sermon of the Prophet, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
188.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
189.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>; cited in Chowdhry, above n 150.
190.
Ida Madieha bt. Abdul Ghani Azmi, Intellectual Property Laws and Islam in Malaysia (PhD Thesis, Queen Mary & Westfield College, London, 2005) 61. See also the definition of Mal in various schools of Islamic jurisprudence, Iqbal, above n 176, 72-73.
191.
Bashir, above n 155, 77.
192.
Every Muslim should give zakat of 2.5% of the wealth in his position for every lunar year. If the wealth amounts to less than the nisab (threshold figure,), then no zakat is payable. This threshold limit is 87.48g (3oz) of gold or its equivalent in cash. See islamic-relief, Zakat Questions and Answers <http://www.islamic-relief.com/zakat/zakintro1.htm>.
193.
Bashir, above n 155, 81.
194.
Iqbal, above n 176, 65.
195.
Ibid.
196.
Mahafzah, Melhem and Haloosh, above n 150, 457, 459.
197.
Ibid 463. See also Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 61, 136.
198.
Amanullah, above n 150, 303.
199.
Iqbal, above 176, 54.
200.
Ida Madieha Azmi, ‘Basis for the Recognition of Intellectual Property in Light of the Shari’ah’ (1996) 27(5) International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law 649, 652.
201.
Hadith, Ibn ‘Adiyy, Al-Bayhaqi & Al-Tabarani, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
202.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
203.
See the source of the Hadith, Wahbah al-Zuhayli, Al-Mu’amalat al-Maliyyah al-Mu’asirah, (Dar al-Fikr al-Mu’asir, 2002) 590, 570, cited in Amanullah, above n 150, 301.
204.
Mahafzah, Melhem and Haloosh, above n 150, 464.
205.
Raslan, above n 150, 528-529.
206.
Beltrameti, above n 150.
207.
Azmi, above n 200, 671.
208.
Quran, Surah Hud, 11: 15. See also, Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
209.
Quran, Surah Al-Jathiyah, 45: 15. See also Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
210.
Quran, Surah Al-Khaf (the cave), 18: 46. See also, Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
211.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
212.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
213.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
214.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
215.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
216.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>; cited in Chowdhry, above n 150.
217.
Amanullah, above n 150, 304.
218.
Iqbal, above n 176, 57.
219.
Raslan, above n 150, 501; Iqbal, above n 176, 52.
220.
The Islamic Workplace, Islam Forbids the Violation of Copyrights and Laws Regarding Intellectual Property (3 September 2008) <http://makkah.wordpress.com/2008/09/03/islam-forbids-the-violation-copyright-laws-and-laws-regarding-intellectual-property/>.
221.
Raslan, above n 150, 503.
222.
Nagla Rizk and Lea Shaver, Access to Knowledge in Egypt (Bloomsbury Academic, 2010) 125.
223.
Quran, Surah Al-Taubah, 9:1. See also Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
224.
Quran, Surah Al-Taubah, 9:7. See also Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
225.
Quran, Surah Al-Maidah, 5. See also Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.
226.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
227.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
228.
Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
229.
Azmi, above n 190, 61.
230.
Azmi, above n 200, 649, 662.
231.
Amanullah, above n 150, 301, 304; Mohammad Al Shalash, ‘Rights of Intellectual Property from Legal and Jurisprudence Perspective’ (2007) 21 (3) Al Najah Journal for Research (in Arabic) 768,795.
232.
See Islam Awakening <http://forums.islamicawakening.com/f16/pirated-software-7965/>.
233.
Raslan, above n 150.
234.
The Quran says:

Woe to those who use measure and measure, who when receiving take for themselves a full measure, but when measuring or weighting for others give less’ and ‘Plead to those on behalf of those that are unfaithful to themselves. Surely Allah loves not those who are perfidious and persistent sinners.

(Quran, 83:1) See also Khar and al Hilalti, above n 185.

The prophet also said that:

When you come to a land where they give full measure and full weight, stay there. When you come to a land where they shorten the measure and weight, then do not stay there very long.

Hadith, Hadith Library <http://ahadith.co.uk/>.
235.
Mahafzah, Melhem and Haloosh, above n 150, 461.
236.
Iqbal, above n 176, 52.
237.
Iqbal, above n 176, 54.
238.
Ibid 52.
239.
Ibid.
240.
Mahafzah, Melhem and Haloosh, above n 150, 462.
241.
Siddiqi, above n 156.
242.
Azmi, above n 190, 131.
243.
Ida Madieha Azmi, ‘Authorship and Islam in Malaysia: Issues in Perspective’ (1997) 28 (5) International Review of Intellectual Property and Competition Law 671, 677.
244.
Grunebaum, above n 179, 234.
245.
Vaughan, above n 46, 335.
246.
Ibid. See also Joost Smiers, Why Impose Copyright on Non-Western Countries? (9 October 2009) The Copysouth Research Group <http://www.copysouth.org/portal/node/37>; Danny Lam, Jeremy T. Paltiel and John H. Shannon, ‘The Confucian Entrepreneur? Chinese Culture, Industrial Organization and Intellectual Property Piracy in Taiwan’ (1994) 20 (4) Asian Affairs 205.
247.
Margaret K. Nydell, Understanding Arabs (Intercultural, 2006) ch 1.
248.
Nagla Rizk, ‘Arab Musiconomics, Culture, Copyright, and the Commons’ in Neil Weinstock Netanel, The Development Agenda: Global Intellectual Property and Developing Countries (Oxford University, 2009) 341, 349.
249.
Nydell, above n 247.
250.
Ibid ch 2.
251.
Al Jaimat, Plagiarism from a Cross-Cultural Perspective (4 June 2009) <http://www.al-jamiat.com/college-lifestyle/plagiarism-crosscultural-perspective/>.
252.
Peter Mansfield, The Arabs (Penguin, 3rd, 1992) 532 (quoting Howard M. Sachar, 1936-1954, 608-09 (1974)); Carroll, above n 69, 589.
253.
Carroll, above n 69, 589-590.
254.
Mansfield, above n 252, 532.
255.
Carroll, above n 69, 596.
256.
Beltrameti, above n 150.
257.
Carroll, above n 69, 596.
258.
Raslan, above n 150, 503-504.
259.
Beltrameti, above n 150.
260.
Litman, above n 85.
261.
Compare social norms with custom or urf in (Arabic), which is defined as ‘recurring practices, which are acceptable to people of sound nature’. There are two main types of urfs, general or public and private. The first is prevalent everywhere, and the second is prevalent in a particular locality, profession, or trade. Two conditions must be met to qualify as an urf, and these include the following: i) it must represent a common and recurrent phenomenon; and ii) it must also be in existence at the time a transaction is concluded. See Kamali, Muhammad Hashim, Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence (Islamic Texts Society, 1991) 286, cited in Azmi, above n 190, 68.
262.
Rizk and Shaver, above n 222, 122; Anas Tawileh, A Study of the Music Industry in the Arab World (5 April 2008) Creative Commons <http://archive.icommons.org/articles/a-study-of-the-music-industry-in-the-arab-world>.
263.
Bouziane Daoudi and Hadj Miliani, L’Aventure du Raï: Musique et Société(Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1996), 126-29 cited in Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 59.
264.
Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 63.
265.
Azmi, above n 200, 651.
266.
Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 62, 63.
267.
Ibid.
268.
Tawileh, above n 262.
269.
Rizk, above n 248, 356.
270.
Tawileh, above n 262; Rizk, above n 248, 352, 365.
271.
Rizk and Shaver, above n 222, 110.
272.
Story, Darch and Halbert, above n 9, 63.
273.
Ibid.
274.
See ch 2.
275.
Sharif Al Zu’bi and Zeid D. Hanania, Legal and Judicial Reform in the Arab World Arab, World Economic Forum United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Regional Bureau for Arab States (RBAS) <http://www.pogar.org/publications/other/gen/04e-abc-legal-reform.pdf>.
276.
Ibid.
277.
Ibid.
278.
Coombe, above n 56.
279.
Feifei Jiang, ‘The Problems with Patents’ (2005) Harvard Internationl Review 30, 33.
280.
Land, above n 70; Coombe, above n 56.
281.
Land, above n 70.
282.
Azmi, above n 243, 687-698; Raslan, above n 150, 559; Beltrameti, above n 150.
283.
The Copyright Act of 1957 (Law No. 14 (No. 49)), as amended. See India, WIPO, <http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/text.jsp?file_id=128098>.
284.
There are some developing countries that have given a particular attention to these laws. These laws include the following: Provisional Measure No 2. 186-16 on Access to Genetics Recourses and Traditional Knowledge 2001 (Brazil); The Law of Kyrgyz Republic on the Protection of Traditional Knowledge No 116, 2007 (The Kyrgyz Republic), The Protection and Promotion of Traditional Thai Medicine Act B.E 2542 (1999) (Thailand); Indigenous Peoples Rights Act 1997 (Philippines); Law Introducing a Protection Regime for the Collective Knowledge of Indigenous People Derived from Biological Resource, N 27811, 2002 (Peru); The African Model Legislation for the Protection of Rights of Local Communities, Framers and Breeders, and for the Regulation of Access to Biological Recourses 2000 (Organisation of African Unity). See also WIPO, Comparative Summary of Existing National Sui Generis Measures and Laws for the Protection of Traditional Knowledge <http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/tk/en/laws/pdf/grtkf_ic_5_inf_4_annex.pdf>.
285.
The Copyright Law No. 22 of 1992, Official Gazette No. 3821, 16 April 1992 (Copyright Law) <http://www.lob.gov.jo/ui/laws/search_no.jsp?no=22&year=1992>. See also Office of the High Commisioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Review of Developments Pertaining to the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Indigenous Peoplesnnnnnnnnnnnn Including their Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, <HTTP://WWW2.OHCHR.ORG/ENGLISH/ISSUES/INDIGENOUS/DOCS/WGIP23/CRP3.DOC>.
286.
See also USAID, Update on Compliance with Intellectual Property Rights in Jordan (2007) <http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADM871.pdf>.
287.
There are countries such as Australia that have developed proposals on indigenous communal moral rights (ICMR). See New South Wales Government, Indigenous Communal Moral Rights (ICMR) <http://ab-ed.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/aboriginal-art/protecting-australian-indigenous-art/background-information/proposals-for-change/indigenous-communal-moral-rights-icmr>.
288.
Ibid. See also Jean Raymond Homere, ‘Intellectual Property Rights Can Help Stimulate the Economic Development of Least Developed Countries’ (2004) 27 (2) Columbia Jounral of Law and Arts 277, 297.
289.
Ibid.
290.
Jordan has only issued the Urban Heritage Law No 5 of 2005. See the Urban Heritage Law No 5 of 2005, Official Gazette No. 4702, 31 March 2005 <http://www.lob.gov.jo/ui/laws/search_no.jsp?no=5&year=2005>.
291.
Milius, above n 101, 187.
292.
OseiTutu, above n 101, 206.
293.
Hazucha, above n 102, 29.
294.
Ibid 18.
295.
Ibid 18.
296.
Wendland, above n 110, 504.
297.
WIPO, Draft Provision on Traditional Cultural Expression <http://www.wipo.int/tk/en/consultations/draft_provisions/draft_provisions.html>.
298.
Olufunmilayo B. Arewa argues that:

The Copyright law should be to a greater extent allow for more flexibility for local communities. In cases of local knowledge, this means that local communities should have some ability to participate in decisions regarding uses of local knowledge as well as the development of intellectual property frameworks that influence the treatment of such knowledge. Such steps may help encourage the development of technological, scientific, and institutional capacity that could help local communities realize more broadly the benefits of free trade.

See Olufunmilayo B. Arewa, ‘TRIPS and Traditional Knowledge: Local Communities, Local Knowledge, and Global Intellectual Property Framework’ (2006) 10 (2) Marquette Intellectual Property Law Review 169-170 <http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=o_arewa>.

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Rami M. Olwan

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Olwan, R.M. (2012). Intellectual Property, Culture, and Development. In: Intellectual Property and Development. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27907-2_4

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