Abstract
The turn of the twentieth century was marked in Latin America by intense constitutional activity that extended to practically all the countries of the Central and South American subcontinent. In the last decade of the twentieth century and the first of the present one, important constitutional changes took place in this field, not only in quantitative terms as a consequence of the number of new texts and constitutional reforms carried out but also because of the innovations that some of these changes have introduced in contemporary constitutionalism, particularly in the case of Latin America, in the early years of the present century.
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Notes
- 1.
An overview of Latin American constitutionalism up to the last decade of the twentieth century can be seen in the extensive: “Estudio introductorio” by Quiroga Lavie (1994), pp. 7–117. Likewise, see the wide ranging: “Estudio preliminar” by Hector Fix Zamudio in the classic work by Biscaretti (1996), pp. 28–69.
- 2.
See Reinaldo Vanossi (2007), pp. 407–424.
- 3.
- 4.
See Clavero (2005), pp. 195–211.
- 5.
Regarding these latter countries, see Cruz and Guerra (2010), pp. 97–124.
- 6.
On this subject, see Bidart Campos (2003), pp. 267–288.
- 7.
- 8.
See Rachadell (2003), pp. 95–148.
- 9.
- 10.
See: Brewer-Carias (1992), pp. 773–815
- 11.
Article 77 of the Venezuelan Constitution of 1961 is drafted in the following terms: “The State will propose to improve the living conditions of the rural population. The Law will establish a special regime which requires the protection of the indigenous communities and their progressive incorporation into the life of the Nation”.
- 12.
Regarding the Venezuelan Constitutional Preamble, see Canova Gonzalez (2001), pp. 409–446.
- 13.
- 14.
Regarding Venezuelan federalism, in particular, see Brewer-Carias (1992); Informe sobre la descentralización en Venezuela (1993–1994), Arte, Caracas, 1994.
- 15.
See Crazut (2000), p. 40 onwards.
- 16.
An account of the different declarations, agreements, accords, etc. regarding indigenous rights up to approval of the Venezuelan Constitution can be found in AA.VV. (1998), 710 pp.
- 17.
Despite this, it is necessary to point out that we will also find it in similar terms in the constitutions of Ecuador and Bolivia.
- 18.
Regarding the specific problem posed by this group of rights and social rights, in general, in Latin American and refounding constitutionalism, in particular, see Noguera (2010), especially Chapter VI, which deals with the group of countries immersed in refounding processes, pp. 159–233.
- 19.
As a comparative reference, it should be said that the same constitutional provision (Article 186) also sets as three the number of representatives of each State in the National Parliament, to which we have to add a variable additional number according to the population. There is no Senate that, in principle, is the ideal Chamber for territorial representation.
- 20.
Regarding the Bolivarian constituent assembly in Venezuela, see Viciano and Martinez Dalmau (2001), p. 169 onwards.
- 21.
Regarding the new institutional organisation of the Republic, see Viciano and Martinez Dalmau (2001), op. cit., in particular, the section devoted to “the configuration of powers”, p. 229 onwards.
- 22.
It is interesting to note the linguistic gender used by the Venezuelan Constituent Assembly throughout the constitutional text. This is a characteristic feature of refounding constitutionalism that we also find in the Ecuadorian and Bolivian constitutional texts.
- 23.
This possibility of re-election was introduced by constitutional amendment number 1 of 15/02/09, the only constitutional reform carried out up till now.
- 24.
The similarity is noteworthy in the denomination of this body with the Spanish ICF, which reveals the influence of the Spanish Constitution on the Venezuelan one. Regarding this subject, see Brewer-Carias (2003), pp. 765–786.
- 25.
The numerous constitutional texts that appeared in Ecuador between 1822 and 1978 reveal the scant interest that this subject has aroused. Regarding the previous Ecuadorian Constitution of 1978 (prior to that of 1998, which we deal with in this paper, and the current one of 2008), see Salgado (1992), pp. 325–350.
- 26.
Regarding this Constitution, see AA.VV. (2005).
- 27.
There is a marked contrast between the current preliminary text and the previous one of 1998, although the latter already contained a reference to the diversity of peoples, ethnic groups, and cultures. Regarding this, see Verdesoto (2001), pp. 183–192.
- 28.
See Pacari (2005), pp. 143–172.
- 29.
See Baltazar (2009), pp. 211–234.
- 30.
Regarding the specific problem that the coexistence of indigenous rights with the constitutional ones poses, see Vitale (2008), pp. 3–16.
- 31.
Regarding the new rights incorporated into current Latin American constitutionalism in general, see Noguera 2010, op. cit.
- 32.
This is a subject of maximum topicality that also affects the indigenous population and the cause of frequent conflicts between these population groups and the (normally foreign) mining companies. The media at times report these disturbances regarding this question, which are on occasions very serious (at the time of writing this paper, October–November 2011, there were incidents in Bolivia caused by the construction of the inter-oceanic road).
- 33.
A minority ethnic group, located on the Ecuadorian coast, the result of Indo-Afro-Hispanic cross-breeding.
- 34.
The statistics regarding the ethnic composition of the population, including the official ones, vary according to the classificatory criteria, in particular with respect to the mixed race population. One of those drawn up by the Official Institute (INEC) distributes the population in the following way: mixed race (55 %), Amerindians (22 %), whites (17 %), African descendants (3 %), and others (3 %). For more precise data, see Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo (INEC) (http://www.inec.gob.ec).
- 35.
Regarding the territorial organisation of the State in the previous Constitution of 1988, see Perez Loose (2005), pp.173–192.
- 36.
Regarding the model of territorial organisation in the 2008 Constitution, see Viciano (2009), pp. 105–118.
- 37.
See Perez Loose (2005), op. cit.
- 38.
See Viciano 2009, p. 108, op. cit.
- 39.
The 24 provinces, already in existence prior to the current Constitution, are grouped into seven regions (newly created bodies) and two metropolitan districts: Quito and Guayaquil.
- 40.
The similarity between the Spanish Constitution in the definition of the Statutes as a “basic institutional norm” is striking, which denotes the influence that this exercised on the Ecuadorian constituent assembly. Regarding this question, see Salgado (2003), pp. 445–458.
- 41.
Regarding this subject, see Suing Nagua (2009), op. cit., pp. 383–401.
- 42.
68 % of the Bolivian people identify themselves as cross-bred, 18 % as indigenous-native, and 37 % as white (descendents of Hispano-Europeans), according to data from the National Survey carried out by the Fundación Boliviana para la Democracia Multipartidaria (FBDM) and the Fondo para la Democracia de las Naciones Unidas (UNDEF). To determine the ethnic composition of the Bolivian population more accurately, see the Reports of the Bolivian National Statistics Institute (INE) at: http://www.ine.gob.bo.
- 43.
The modifications introduced by these constitutional reforms can be consulted in the compilation of the Bolivian Constitutions (and Hispano-American ones, in general), which the Cervantes virtual library offers, at http://bib.cervantesvirtual.com/portal/constituciones. A commentary on the previous Constitution of 1967, of which these reforms are made, can be seen in Harb (1992), pp. 99–125.
- 44.
The Bolivian constituent process was particularly conflictive and prolonged. It began with the victory of Evo Morales in the Presidential elections of December, 2005, and continued until January, 2009, when the referendum was held to approve the new Constitutional text currently in force. See Storini and Noguera (2008), pp. 1285–1304.
- 45.
The extensive preamble to the present Constitution contrasts with the absence of a preamble in the previous constitutional texts, which has led Bolivian constitutionalists to consider the Act of Independence and the Declaration of 1825 as the foundational text. In this regard, see Harb (2001), p. 61 onwards.
- 46.
See del Real Alcala (2011), p. 115.
- 47.
See Nuñez Rivero (2009), p. 566.
- 48.
- 49.
Regarding recognition of the rights of the indigenous peoples in general, see AA.VV. (2007), especially the second part specifically devoted to “exercising the rights of the indigenous peoples”, pp. 161–333.
- 50.
Regarding the problem that this subject raises, see Noguera (2010), pp. 87–116.
- 51.
It would be more appropriate to talk of a right to consultation on the part of the institutions when these adopt a decision that affects the indigenous population. It is a highly topical question that often causes organised protests of the indigenous population (such as that which was taking place at the time the present paper was written (October–November 2011) in Bolivia as a result of construction work on the inter-oceanic road running through the Bolivian indigenous territories).
- 52.
Regarding this question, set in the more general context of globalisation, see Assies (2007), op. cit., pp. 227–246.
- 53.
Rights that are closely linked to the formulation of indigenous autonomy. Regarding this, see Aparicio Wilhelmi (2007), op. cit., pp. 247–28.
- 54.
Article 5 of the present Bolivian Constitution lists no less than 36 official languages, the majority of them spoken by very small groups, which means that their official status is more formal than real and effective.
- 55.
A brief overview regarding the Bolivian historical constitutional evolution and, in particular, the previous Constitution of 1967 to the present one can be seen in Harb (1992), pp. 99–125.
- 56.
The terms used in the constitutional text (and in the laws) to refer to the territorial units—Departments—and to the authorities that head them—Prefect—are very illustrative, in this respect.
- 57.
- 58.
See Marti i Puig (2007), op. cit., pp. 127–148.
- 59.
Regarding the drawn-out and conflictive Bolivian constituent process, see Storini and Noguera (2008), pp. 1285–1304.
- 60.
Framework Law for Autonomy and Decentralisation (LMAD, in Spanish). The unabridged text of this important constitutional developmental law regarding the territorial organisation of the State can be seen at http://file.minedu.gob.bo/ves/ves_11.pdf.
- 61.
Regarding the distinct nature of the different autonomous bodies—departmental, indigenous, and regional—see Clavero and Noguera 2005, in the debate about multinationality and autonomy in nos. 84, 85, 87, 89, op. cit.
- 62.
As already pointed out on previous occasions in relation to Venezuela and Ecuador, the lexis used in the Bolivian constitutional text, and in particular in its provisions relating to territorial organisation (Statute of Autonomy, a basic institutional norm), also reflects the influence of the Spanish constitution. In this regard, see Rivera (2003), pp. 177–195.
- 63.
Regarding the role of this law (LMAD) of constitutional application in the Bolivian autonomous process, see Barrios 2011, p. 84 onwards.
- 64.
Regarding territorial organisation prior to that established by the current Constitution, see Barrios (2011), op. cit., in particular, the section devoted to “the Bolivian territorial organisation prior to Constitution reform”, p. 66 onwards. Likewise, regarding the origin of the new departmental autonomies, see Urenda (2005).
- 65.
Including the departmental legislatures in the institutional system affects the reconfiguration of state legislature, a question already posed during the course of the constituent debate. See, in this regard, Asbun (2007).
- 66.
See Barrios (2010).
- 67.
Especially the eastern Departments (Santa Cruz, Beni, Pando, Tarija), where the demands for departmental autonomy were stronger and, in particular, the Department of Santa Cruz, which has the greatest economic and demographic importance in Bolivia. See, in this respect, Barrios (2005).
- 68.
See Albó and Romero (2009).
- 69.
See Mendoza (2009).
- 70.
The Framework Law for Autonomies and Decentralisation (LMAD), cit.
- 71.
Although it is not possible to develop the subject in this study, it has to be said that it is one of the topics to have given rise to the most doctrinal commentaries (and political controversies). Regarding this problem, see AA.VV. (Laura Giraudo, ed.) (2008), in particular, Ahumada Ruiz (2008), pp. 233–241; Sanchez Botero (2008), pp. 215–232; Borja Jimenez (2008), pp. 185–213; Molina Rivero (2008), pp. 95–125.
- 72.
Although the constitutionalisation of the regions as autonomous entities is very recent (2009), regionalist approaches already existed prior to the present constitutional text. Regarding this, see Roca (1999).
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Ayala, A.P. (2013). The Indigenous Question and the Territorial Organisation of the State in Latin American Refounding Constitutionalism. In: López - Basaguren, A., Escajedo San Epifanio, L. (eds) The Ways of Federalism in Western Countries and the Horizons of Territorial Autonomy in Spain. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27717-7_35
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