Field-Specific Modernization

Abstract

Every country has its customs (English proverb), and every field has its speciality. Modernization happens in all fields of human civilization, such as the spheres of economy, society, politics, culture, natural environment, and human self. Field-specific modernization is an important part of modernization science (Fig. 6.1) and interweaves with staged and stratified modernization. In general, modernization in different spheres has both commonality and difference, and the core theory of general modernization has somewhat different applicability in different spheres. Country is the basic unit for modernization, and modernization of each sphere is closely related with national modernization.

Appendices

Summary

Modernization occurs in all spheres of human civilization, such as the spheres of economy, society, politics, culture, ecology, and human development. Modernization in different spheres has both commonality and difference. Country is the basic unit for modernization, and modernization of each sphere is closely related with modernization of a country as a whole.

6.1.1 Economic Modernization

Economic modernization means the modernization of the economic sphere. Economic modernization theories include classic economic modernization theory and broad-sense economic modernization theory. The former is a branch of classic modernization theory, and the latter is an application of the second modernization theory in the economic sphere.

The economic modernization theory in broad sense holds that economic modernization is a sort of economic change and international competition since the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century; a frontier process of the formation, development, transformation, and international interaction of modern economy; a compound process of the innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of economic factors; and the international economic competition, differentiation, and stratification to catch up with, reach, and maintain the world’s advanced level of the economic development. It includes the transition from agricultural to industrial economy and the transition from industrial to knowledge economy, the increasing of economic efficiency and per capita income, and the change of economic welfare and equity, national economic status, and international economy system.

Generally, economic modernization refers to the world frontiers of economic change and the process to reach the frontiers. During the eighteenth to twenty-first centuries, the frontier process of economic modernization can be divided into two stages.

First economic modernization refers to the transitions from agricultural to industrial economy and from self-supporting to market economy, etc. Its unique features included industrialization, mechanization, electrification, automation, standardization, scale operation, marketization, centralization, deagriculturalization, etc. Its results were the formation of first economic modernity, particularity, and diversity and the side effects such as environmental pollution and cyclic economic crises. The main marks for the completion of first economic modernization were the finish of industrialization and marketization and economic efficiency and per capita income reaching the advanced level of industrial economy (the average level of industrial countries in the 1960s).

The second economic modernization is the transitions from industrial to knowledge economy and from material to ecological economy, etc. Currently, its unique features include intellectualization, informatization, servicization, intelligentization, ecologization, globalization, greenization, dematerialization, decentralization, deindustrialization, etc. Its results are the formation of the second economic modernity, particularity, and diversity and the side effects such as network crimes and international economic risks. The main marks for the completion of second economic modernization are the realization of intellectualization and ecologization, and the level of productivity and per capita national income reaching the advanced level of knowledge economy (at some points in the future).

Integrated economic modernization is a basic path for developing countries in the twenty-first century. It comprises the coordinated development of the twice economic modernizations and the continuous movement toward knowledge economy and the coordinated development of the industrialization, deindustrialization, intellectualization, informatization, greenization, and globalization of national economy and the continuous movement toward intellectualization and greenization.

In the twenty-first century, economic modernization has roughly three basic paths. The path of the first economic modernization corresponds to the model of industrialization; the path of the second economic modernization corresponds to the model of information economy, ecological economy, biological economy, experience economy, etc.; and the path of integrated economic modernization corresponds to the model of new industrialization, including the coordinated development of industrialization, de-industrialization, intellectualization, informatization, and ecologization. Different models have many submodels.

6.1.2 Social Modernization

Social modernization means modernization of the social sphere. Social modernization theory includes classic social modernization theory and social modernization theory in broad sense. The former is a branch of classic modernization theory, while the latter is an application of the second modernization theory in the social sphere.

The social modernization theory in the broad sense believes that social modernization is a sort of social change and international competition since the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century. It is the frontier process of the formation, development, transformation, and international interaction of modern society; a compound process of the innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of social factors; and also the international social competition, differentiation, and stratification to catch up with, reach, and maintain the world’s advanced level of social development. It comprises the transition from agricultural to industrial society and from industrial to knowledge society, the improvement of social effectiveness and quality of life, the change of lifestyle and living ideas, the enhancement of civic quality of culture and health, and the change of social welfare, equity, and international social status.

Generally, social modernization refers to the world frontiers of social change and the process to reach the frontiers. During the eighteenth to twenty-first centuries, the frontier process of social modernization can be divided into two stages.

The first social modernization is a transition from agricultural to industrial society and from familial to welfare society, etc., and its features include urbanization, welfarism, mobility, specialization, rationalization, electrification, technologization, equity, social differentiation and integration, universal primary education, and so on. Its result was the formation of the first social modernity, particularity, and diversity, and its side effects include the widening gap between the rich and the poor, etc. The completion of the first social modernization was mainly marked by the competition of urbanization, welfarism and social efficiency, and life standard reaching the advanced level of industrial society (the average level of industrial countries in the 1960s).

The second social modernization is a transition from industrial to knowledge society and from material to ecological society, etc. Currently, its features include intellectualization, informatization, suburbanization, urban–rural balance, greenization, ecologization, naturalization, innovation, internationalization, diversification, individualization, leisure, rights of women and children, universal higher education, lifetime learning, and so on. Its results are the formation of the second social modernity, particularity, and diversity, and its side effects include the information divide, etc. The completion of the second social modernization is mainly marked by the completion of intellectualization, greenization, and social effectiveness and quality of life reaching the world’s advanced level of knowledge society (at some points in the future).

Integrated social modernization is a basic path for developing countries in the twenty-first century. It comprises the coordinated development of the twice social modernizations and the continuous transition to knowledge society and the coordinated development of urbanization, suburbanization, welfarism, intellectualization, informatization, and greenization and the continuous transition to intellectualization and greenization, etc.

Social modernization has roughly three basic paths in the twenty-first century. The path for the first social modernization corresponds to the model of urbanization and welfarism, the path for the second social modernization corresponds to the model of intellectualization and greenization, etc., and the path for integrated social modernization corresponds to the model of new urbanization, including the coordinated development of urbanization, suburbanization, welfarism, intellectualization, informatization, greenization, etc.

6.1.3 Political Modernization

Political modernization refers to modernization in the political sphere. The theory of political modernization includes classic political modernization theory and political modernization theory in broad sense. The former is a branch of classic modernization theory, while the latter is the application of the second modernization theory in the political sphere.

According to the political modernization theory in the broad sense, political modernization refers to a sort of political change and international competition since the industrial revolution in the eighteenth century; the frontier process of the formation, development, transformation, and international interaction of modern politics; the complex process of the innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of political factors; and the international political competition and stratification for catching up with, reaching, and maintaining the world’s advanced level of political development. It includes the transition from traditional to modern politics and from modern to postmodern politics. It also involves the rational and democratic political power, legislative and equal political participation, institutional and professional political system, and rational and efficient political behaviors.

Generally, political modernization refers to the world frontiers of political change and the process to reach the frontiers. From the eighteenth century to twenty-first century, the frontier process of political modernization can be divided into two major stages.

The first political modernization refers to the transition from agricultural to industrial politics, from authoritarian to democratic politics, from familial to civil politics, etc. Its features include democratization, rationalization, secularization, systematization, rule of law, bureaucratization, professionalization, class-stratified, concentration, etc. Its result is the formation of first political modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of political corruption. The major indicator of the completion of the first political modernization is the formation of democratic, free, equal, and efficient modern politics.

The second political modernization refers to the transition from industrial to knowledge politics, power-oriented to service-oriented politics, material to ecological politics, etc. Currently, it is featured with networking, knowledgeablization, service-based, greenization, diversification, internationalization, topic-related and opening politics, individualized and scattered politics, etc. Its result is the formation of the second political modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of decreasing political credit. So far, the second political modernization has not been fully rolled out.

Integrated political modernization is a basic path for the developing countries in the twenty-first century, including the coordinated development of the twice political modernizations and the shift toward knowledge-based politics. It requires the simultaneous promotion of the two political modernizations, including democratization, rationalization, systematization, professionalization, knowledge-based, networking, diverse and green politics, etc.

In the twenty-first century, there are three basic paths and several specific subpaths for political modernization. The basic paths include the path of the second political modernization, the first political modernization, and the integrated political modernization, with several subpaths under each. There are four subfields in the political sphere (political participation, national governance, international politics, and political environment), each of which follows a specific path of modernization, with the three basic paths being their envelope.

6.1.4 Cultural Modernization

Cultural modernization refers to the modernization in the cultural sphere. The theory of cultural modernization includes classic cultural modernization theory and cultural modernization theory in broad sense. The former is a branch of classic modernization theory, while the latter is the application of the second modernization theory in the cultural sphere.

According to the cultural modernization theory in broad sense, cultural modernization refers to a sort of cultural change and international competition since the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century; the frontier process of the formation, development, transformation, and international interaction of modern culture; the complex process of the innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of cultural factors; and the international cultural competition and stratification for catching up with, reaching, and maintaining the world frontier status of cultural change. It includes the transformation from traditional to modern culture and from modern to postmodern culture, the improvement of cultural creativity and the quality of cultural life, the development of cultural facilities and cultural industries, the self-emancipation and all-round development of mankind, etc.

Generally, cultural modernization refers to the world frontiers of cultural change and the process to reach the frontiers. During the period from the eighteenth century to the twenty-first century, the frontier process of cultural modernization can be divided into two major stages.

The first cultural modernization refers to the transition from agricultural to industrial culture, including the transition from authoritarian to democratic culture, from feudal to civic culture, from superstitious to scientific culture, from dependent to professional culture, from familial to welfare culture, from rural to urban culture, and so on. Its features include cultural differentiation, specialization, professionalization, rationalization, secularization, commercialization, scientific and personalized culture, etc. Its result is the formation of the first cultural modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of weakening humanity. The major indicator of the completion of the first cultural modernization is the formation of modern industrial and democratic culture.

The second cultural modernization refers to the transition from industrial to knowledge culture, including the transition from material to ecological culture, from entity to cyber (virtual) culture, from authoritative to civil culture, from machine to humane culture, from national to global culture, from cultural convergence to diversity, and so on. Currently, it is featured with the dedifferentiation of culture, cultural industrialization, networking, digitalization, ecologization, democratization, humanity, plurality, diversification, globalization, etc. Its result is the formation of the second cultural modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of Internet dependency, etc. The second cultural modernization is the world frontier of cultural modernization which has not been accomplished yet.

Integrated cultural modernization is a basic path for the developing countries. It is the process of the coordinated development of the twice cultural modernizations and the continuous shift toward knowledge culture. Its contents include the cultural industrialization, cultural diversity, networking, professional and scientific culture, democratic, rational and green culture, and so on.

There are three basic paths for cultural modernization in the twenty-first century: the first cultural modernization, the second cultural modernization, and the integrated cultural modernization. There is no standard model for cultural modernization. We have to choose the model rationally. There might be different models of success or failure in different countries or regions and in different stages of cultural modernization, which latecomers can study and learn from.

6.1.5 Ecological Modernization

Ecological modernization refers to the ecological interaction and transformation of modernization since 1970. The theory of ecological modernization includes European ecological modernization theory and ecological modernization theory in broad sense. The former, a theory of environmental sociology, was generated in the 1980s, while the latter was the application of the second modernization theory in the field of natural environment.

According to ecological modernization theory in broad sense, ecological modernization is the interaction and mutual coupling of modernization and natural environment and refers to the ecological transformation and international competition of modernization; the frontier process of the formation, development, and international interaction of ecological civilization; the complex process of innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of factors of ecological civilization; and the international competition and stratification for catching up with, reaching, and maintaining the world’s advanced level of ecological civilization. It includes the transition from material to ecological civilization, economy, society, politics, and culture, and also the improved ecological quality and efficiency, and the change of ecological structure, institution, and ideas, as well as relevant international status. Ecological modernization is the intersection of ecological improvement, ecological economy, ecological society, international competition, and the change of relevant international status.

From the 1970s to the end of the twenty-first century, the process of ecological modernization can be divided into four stages: dematerialization and greening, hyperdematerialization and ecologization, win–win game for economy and environment, and the mutualism and coevolution of men and nature.

Ecological modernization follows the following ten principles: prevention, innovation, efficiency, unequivalence, dematerialization, greenization, ecologization, democratic participation, polluter pays (internalization of environmental cost), and the win–win game for economy and environment.

The result of ecological modernization is the formation of ecological modernity, particularity, and diversity. Currently, the features of ecological modernity include dematerialization, greening, ecologization, and the absolute decoupling between modernization and environmental degradation, and the mutual coexistence and coevolution of men and nature. The basic requirements are the absolute delinking between economic growth and environmental degradation and beneficial interaction between modernization and natural environment.

The result of ecological modernization is demonstrated by the profound changes in the following six aspects: first, the completion of ecological transformation and the mutualism of man and nature; second, the improvement of natural environment, the minimization of environmental pressure, and environmental friendliness; third, the increasing of ecological efficiency and the decreasing of resource and energy density; fourth, the upgrading of ecological structure and system; fifth, the popularization of ecological consideration; and sixth, the change of the international status of ecological transformation.

There are three basic paths for ecological modernization in the twenty-first century: comprehensive ecological modernization, integrated ecological modernization, and the ecological modification of the first modernization. The basic models of the ecological modernization in the twenty-first century include the model combining dematerialization, greenization, and ecologization; the model combining green industrialization and urbanization and ecological transition of structure; and the model combining industrialization, urbanization, and environmental management. Models which can be widely applied include environmental agenda, industrial ecology, ecological garden, green production and consumption, etc.

6.1.6 Human Modernization

Human modernization refers to the human changes during the modernization process, including individual progress, institutional development, environmental improvement, and so on. The theory of human modernization includes classic human modernization theory and human modernization theory in broad sense. The former is a branch of the classic modernization theory, while the latter is the application of the second modernization theory in the field of human behaviors.

According to the human modernization theory in broad sense, human modernization refers to the frontier change and international competition in the field of human development since the eighteenth century; the frontier process of the formation, development, transformation, and interaction of modern men; the complex process of the innovation, selection, diffusion, and withdrawal of human factors and civil systems; and the international competition differentiation and stratification for catching up with, reaching, and maintaining the world’s advanced level of human development.

Generally, human modernization refers to the self-emancipation and all-round development of mankind and the intersection of individual progress, institutional development, and environmental improvement. It includes the transition from traditional mankind to modern mankind and from modern mankind to postmodern mankind, the improved quality and capabilities of citizens, the development of the rights and obligations of citizens, and the change of individual lifestyle, behavior model and values.

Human modernization includes the world frontiers of human development and the process to reach the frontiers in general. From the eighteenth century to the twenty-first century, the frontier process of human modernization can be divided into two major stages.

The human modernization in the first modernization process is known as the first human modernization for short, including the transition from traditional to modern men. It is mainly characterized by citizenship, professionalization, rationalization, equalization, economization, socialization, politicalization, the emphasis upon accomplishment and individual values, and the gradual adaption of individual behavior, qualities, capabilities, systems, and ideas to the industrial civilization. Its result is the formation of the first human modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of indifference between people, etc.

The human modernization in the second modernization process is known as the second human modernization for short. Currently, it is characterized by the networking, ecologization, diversification, personalization, internationalization, innovation, knowledgization, the emphasis upon happiness and self-realization, and the gradual adaption of individual behavior, qualities, capabilities, systems, and ideas to knowledge and ecological civilization. Its result is the formation of the second human modernity, particularity, and diversity, with the side effect of increasing risks, etc.

There are three paths in the twenty-first century: the first human modernization, the second human modernization, and integrated human modernization.

Further Reading

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• Harrison D (1988) The sociology of modernization and development. Unwin Hyman, London

• Huntington SP (1968) Political order in changing societies. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT

• Inglehart R, Welzel C (2005) Modernization, cultural change, and democracy: the human development sequence. Cambridge University Press, New York

• Inkeles A, Smith DH (1974) Becoming modern: individual change in six developing countries. Harvard University Press, Cambridge

• Levy MJ (1966) Modernization and the structure of societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

• Mol APJ, Sonnenfeld DA (eds) (2000) Ecological modernization around the world: perspectives and critical debates. Frank Cass, London

• Peters MA, Besley AC (2006) Building knowledge cultures: education and development in the age of knowledge capitalism. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD

• Research Group for China Modernization Strategies (2002) China modernization report 2002. Peking University Press, Beijing

• RGCMS (Research Group for China Modernization Strategies et al) (2005) China modernization report 2005: economic modernization study. Peking University Press, Beijing

• RGCMS (Research Group for China Modernization Strategies et al) (2006) China modernization report 2006: social modernization study. Peking University Press, Beijing

• RGCMS (Research Group for China Modernization Strategies et al) (2007) China modernization report 2007: ecological modernization study. Peking University Press, Beijing

• RGCMS (Research Group for China Modernization Strategies et al) (2009) China modernization report 2009: cultural modernization research. Peking University Press, Beijing

• RGCMS (Research Group for China Modernization Strategies et al) (2010) China modernization report 2010: world modernization outline 1700-2100. Peking University Press, Beijing

• Rostow WW (1960) The stages of economic growth: a non-communist manifesto. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (Trans. Guo Xibao, Wang Songmao (2001) China Social Sciences Press, Beijing)

• Schelkle W et al (eds) (2000) Paradigms of social change: modernization, development, transformation, evolution. St. Martin’s Press, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt, New York

• Steward JH (1955) Theory of culture change: the methodology of multilinear evolution. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL

• Ward SC (2003) Modernizing the mind: psychological knowledge and the remaking of society. Praeger, Westport, CT

• Yan J (2006) Political development: concepts and theories. Peking University Press, Beijing