Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Thyroid Gland

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Nuclear Endocrinology

  • 1469 Accesses

Abstract

The thyroid gland, among other endocrine glands, has a particular place due to its pathologies, by far the most frequents. This chapter presents the most relevant features of anatomy and physiology of the thyroid gland; it describes the diagnosis algorithm: clinical exam, serologic tests, ultrasound, fine needle aspiration biopsy, and imagistic techniques. The nuclear imagistic diagnoses are didactic, briefly presented according to the radiotracer used, indications, procedures, key points. A large clinical part of cases is presented, with examples of images and interpretation. The part dedicated to therapy consists of nuclear therapy strategies for benign thyroid diseases and for thyroid carcinoma. This part has also a very extensive clinical cases presentation, covering a multitude of interesting with high quality images.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ali SZ, Cibas ES (eds). (2010) The Bethesda System for Reporting Thyroid Cytolopahology: definition, criteria and explanatory notes. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • AACE/AME/ETA (2010) Thyroid nodule guidelines. Endocr Pract 16(Suppl 1):1–43

    Google Scholar 

  • American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. American College of Endocrinology (2002) AACE/AAES medical/surgical guidelines for clinical practice: management of thyroid carcinoma. Endocr Pract 7(3):202–220

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson GS, Fish S, Nakhoda K et al (2003) Comparison of I-123 and I-131 for wholebody imaging after stimulation by recombinant human thyrotropin: a preliminary report. Clin Nucl Med 28:93–96

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • ATA/AACE (2011) Hyperthyroidism management guidelines. Endocr Pract 17(3):1–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Biondi B, Filetti S, Schlumberger M (2005) Thyroid-hormone therapy and thyroid cancer: a reassessment. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 1:32–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bongiovanni M, Cibas H, Faquin W (2010) The role of thyroid fine needle aspiration cytology and the Bethesda system for reporting thyroid cytopathology. Diagnostic Histopathology 17(3):95–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Braga M, Cavalcanti TC, Collaco LM et al (2001) Efficacy of ultrasound-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy in the diagnosis of complex thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:4089–4091

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Braverman LE, Utiger RD (2000) The thyroid. In: Werner SC and Ingbar SH (ed). 8th edn. Lippincott, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Canchola AJ, Horn-Ross PL, Purdie DM (2006) Risk of second primary malignancies in women with papillary thyroid cancer. Am J Epidemiol 163:521–527

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carril JM, Quirce R, Serrano J et al (1997) Total-body scintigraphy with thallium-201 and iodine-131 in the follow-up of differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med 38:686–692

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ceccarelli C, Battisti P, Gasperi M et al (1999) Radiation dose to the testes after 131-I therapy for ablation of post-surgical thyroid remnants in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med 40:1716–1721

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chianelli M, Todino V, Graziano F et al (2009) Low dose (2.0 GBq; 54 mCi) radioiodine postsurgical remnant ablation in thyroid cancer: comparison between hormone withdrawal and use of rhTSH in low risk patients. Eur J Endocrinol 160:431–436

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark OH, Duh QY (1990) Thyroid cancer. The thyroid gland. Raven Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLellis RA, Lloyd RV, Heitz PU et al (2004) World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics of endocrine organs. IARC Press, Lyon, pp 49–135

    Google Scholar 

  • DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg AS (2001) Cancer. Principles and practice of oncology, 6th edn. Lippincott, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn JT (1994) When is a thyroid nodule a sporadic medullary carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:824–825

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elisei R, Bottici V, Luchetti F et al (2004) Impact of routine measurement of serum calcitonin on the diagnosis and outcome of medullary thyroid cancer: experience in 10,864 patients with nodular thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:163–168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franzius C, Dietlein M, Biermann M et al (2007) Procedure guideline for radioiodine therapy and 131-iodine whole-body scintigraphy in paediatric patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. Nuklearmedizin 46:224–231

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frates MC, Benson CB, Charboneau JW et al (2005) Management of thyroid nodules detected at US: society of radiologists in ultrasound consensus conference statement. Radiology 237:794–800

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerard SK, Cavalieri RR (2002) I-123 diagnostic thyroid tumour whole-body scanning with imaging at 6, 24, and 48 hours. Clin Nucl Med 27:1–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein RE, Netterville JL, Burkey B et al (2002) Implications of follicular neoplasms, atypia, and lesions suspicious for malignancy diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration of thyroid nodules. Ann Surg 235:656–662

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guarino E, Tarantini B, Pilli T et al (2005) Presurgical serum thyroglobulin has no prognostic value in papillary thyroid cancer. Thyroid 15:1041–1045

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guidelines for the management of thyroid cancer in adults (2007) 2nd Ed. Publication unit of the Royal College of Physicians. British Thyroid Association and Royal College of Physicians, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hackshaw A, Harmer C, Mallick U et al (2007) 131I activity for remnant ablation in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer: a systematic review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:28–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hay ID, Bergstralh EJ, Goellner JR et al (1993) Predicting outcome in papillary thyroid carcinoma: development of a reliable prognostic scoring system in a cohort of 1779 patients surgically treated at one institution during 1940 through 1989. Surgery 114:1050–1058

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hay ID, Thompson GB, Grant CS et al (2002) Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo clinic during six decades (1940–1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients. World J Surg 8:879–885

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hegedus L (2001) Thyroid ultrasound. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 30:339–360

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodgson NC, Button J, Solorzano CC (2004) Thyroid cancer: is the incidence still increasing? Ann Surg Oncol 11:1093–1097

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koizumi K, Tamaki N, Inoue T and subcommittee on ­survey of nuclear medicine practice in Japan (2004) Nuclear medicine practice in Japan: a report of the 5th nationwide survey in 2002. Ann Nucl Med 18(1):73–78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leger AF, Pellan M, Dagousset F et al (2005) A case of stunning of lung and bone metastases of papillary thyroid cancer after a therapeutic dose (3.7 GBq) of 131I and review of the literature: implications for sequential treatments. Br J Radiol 78:428–432

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luster M, Clarke SE, Dietlein M et al (2008) Guidelines for radioiodine therapy of differentiated thyroid cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. doi:10.1007/s00259-008-0883-1

  • Machens A, Holzhausen HJ, Dralle H (2005) The prognostic value of primary tumour size in papillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma. Cancer 103:2269–2273

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel SJ, Mandel L (2003) Radioactive iodine and the salivary glands. Thyroid 13:265–271

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marqusee E, Benson CB, Frates MC et al (2000) Usefulness of ultrasonography in the management of nodular thyroid disease. Ann Intern Med 133:696–700

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayr B, Brabant G, von zur Muhlen A (1999) Incidental detection of familial medullary thyroid carcinoma by calcitonin screening for nodular thyroid disease. Eur J Endocrinol 141:286–289

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzaferri EL, Jhiang SM (1994) Long term impact of initial surgical and medical therapy on papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. Am J Med 49:418–428

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzaferri EL, Robbins RJ, Spencer CA et al (2003) A consensus report of the role of serum thyroglobulin as a monitoring method for low-risk patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:1433–1441

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NCCN (2012) Clinical practice guidelines in oncology (NCCN Guidelines) Thyroid Carcinoma. Version 2.2012, 12/19/11 © National Comprehensive Network, Inc 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacini F, Castagna MG, Brilli L et al (2010) Thyroid cancer ESMO clinical practice guideline for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Annals of oncology 21(5):214–219

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pacini F, Burroni L, Ciuoli C et al (2004) Management of thyroid nodules: a clinicopathological, evidence based approach. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 31:1443–1449

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pacini F, Ladenson PW, Schlumberger M et al (2006a) Radioiodine ablation of thyroid remnants after preparation with recombinant human thyrotropin in differentiated thyroid carcinoma: results of an international, randomized controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:926–932

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pacini F, Schlumberger M, Dralle H et al (2006b) European consensus for the management of patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma of the follicular epithelium. Eur J Endocrinol 154:787–803

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rare cancers list. http://www.rarecare.eu/rarecancers/rarecancers.asp; Accessed 30 Oct 2011

  • Robbins J (1992) Treatment of thyroid cancer in childhood. Proceedings of a workshop National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, 1992, 3–61:109–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins RJ, Wan Q, Grewal RK et al (2006) Real-time prognosis for metastatic thyroid carcinoma based on FDG-PET scanning. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91:498–505

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rubino C, de Vathaire F, Dottorini ME et al (2003) Second primary malignancies in thyroid cancer patients. Br J Cancer 89:1638–1644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sassolas G, Hafdi-Nejjari Z, Remontet L et al (2009) Thyroid cancer: is the incidence rise abating? Eur J Endocrinol 160(1):71–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlumberger M, Pacini F (1999) Thyroid tumours. Nucleon, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlumberger M, De Vathaire F, Ceccarelli C et al (1996) Exposure to radioactive iodine-131 for scintigraphy or therapy does not preclude pregnancy in thyroid cancer patients. J Nucl Med 37:606–612

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schlumberger M, Pacini F, Wiersinga WM et al (2004) Follow-up and management of differentiated thyroid carcinoma: European perspective in clinical practice. Eur J Endocrinol 151:539–548

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shah JP, Loree TR et al (1992) Prognostic factors in differentiated carcinoma of the thyroid gland. Am J Surg 164:658–661

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sipple JR (1961) The association of pheocromocitoma with cancer of thyroid gland. Am J Med 31:163–166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Staging & Grading Thyroid Carcinoma (2010) AJCC cancer staging handbook, 7th edn. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Stokkel MPM, Handkiewicz Junak D, Lassmann M et al (2010) EANM procedure guidelines for therapy of benign thyroid disease. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 37:2218–2228. doi:10.1007/s00259-010-1536-8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The American Thyroid Association (f) Guidelines Taskforce on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer (2009) Revised American thyroid association management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 19:1195–1214

    Google Scholar 

  • The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Taskforce (2006) Management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2(16):3–34

    Google Scholar 

  • The American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Radioiodine Safety (2011) Radiation safety in the treatment of patients with thyroid diseases by radioiodine 131I: practice recommendations of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 21(4):1–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle RM, Leboeuf R, Robbins RJ, Qualey R, Pentlow K, Larson SM and Chan CY (2006) Empiric radioactive iodine dosing regimens frequently exceed maximum tolerated activity levels in elderly patients with thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med 47(10):1587–1591

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle RM, Brokhin M, Omry G et al (2008) Recombinant human TSH-assisted radioactive iodine remnant ablation achieves short-term clinical recurrence rates similar to those of traditional thyroid hormone withdrawal. J Nucl Med 49:764–770

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Velzen van AJM, Chemaly CR (2005) A survey on radioisotope production capabilities, therapeutic radioisotope usage in Europe, expected trends in terms of research activities. European Commission report 1–328

    Google Scholar 

  • Verburg FA, Stokkel MP, Düren C et al (2010) No survival difference after successful (131) I ablation between patients with initially low-risk and high-risk differentiated thyroid cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 37:276–283

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willegaignon J, Saptenza M, Ono C et al (2011) Outpatient radioiodine therapy for thyroid cancer. Clinical Nucl Medicine 36(6):440–446

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann D, Hay ID, Gough IR (1988) Papillary thyroid carcinoma in children and adults: long-term follow-up of 1039 patients conservatively treated at one institution during three decades. Surgery 104:1157–1166

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nuclear Medicine and Endocrine Tumors, Institute of Oncology Prof. Dr. Ion Chiricuţă, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

    Doina Piciu M.D., Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Doina Piciu M.D., Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Doina Piciu M.D., Ph.D. .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer-Verlag GmbH Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Piciu, D. (2012). The Thyroid Gland. In: Nuclear Endocrinology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25014-9_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25014-9_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-25013-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-25014-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation