Zusammenfassung
Altern wurde definiert als »eine mit der Zeit stetig zunehmende Reihe von Veränderungen, die im fortgeschrittenen Alter mit immer höherer Krankheitsanfälligkeit und Tod einhergehen bzw. für sie verantwortlich sind« [1]. Auch das Auge macht dabei keine Ausnahme; Katarakt und Netzhautdegeneration sind häufige Begleiterscheinungen des Alterns [2]. Vor allem die Retina ist empfindlich für Altersveränderungen, da
-
die Mehrheit der Zelltypen nicht teilungsfähig sind, so dass sich Schäden kumulieren,
-
Photorezeptorzellen und die Zellen des retinalen Pigmentepithels metabolisch hoch aktiv sind,
-
die Retina eine hohe Sauerstoffversorgung aufweist, was in Kombination mit Lichtexposition im kurzwelligen Bereich zu oxidativen Schäden führt und
-
eine Akkumulation toxischer Stoffe wie Lipofuszin erfolgt, die die Sensibilität gegenüber Licht erhöhen [3–5].
Ich bedanke mich bei Lynn Shaw für die Bebilderung und bei Prajitha Thampi, Haripriya Vittal Rao und Sayak Mitter für das Korrekturlesen des Manuskripts. Die Forschung des Autors wird durch die NIH-Förderung EY019688 und die AHAF-Förderung M2009024 unterstützt.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Literatur
Harman D (1981) The aging process. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 78(11): 7124–8
Margrain TH, Boulton ME (2005) Sensory impairment. In: Johnson M (ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Aging. University Press, Cambridge, p 121–130
Boulton M (1991) Ageing of the retinal pigment epithelium. In: Osborne N, Chader G (eds) Progress in Retinal Research. Pergamon Press, Oxford, p 125–151
Zarbin MA (2004) Current concepts in the pathogenesis of agerelated macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 122(4): 598–614
de Jong PT (2006) Age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 355(14): 1474–85
Bengtson VL, Putney NM, Johnson ML (2005) In: Johnson M (ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Aging. University Press, Cambridge, p 3–20
Carnes BA, Staats DO, Sonntag WE (2008) Does senescence give rise to disease? Mech Ageing Dev 129(12): 693–9
Harman D (1956) Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J Gerontol 11(3): 298–300
Boulton ME (2008) Aging of the retinal pigment epithelium. In: Tombran-Tink J, Barnstable CJC (eds) Visual Transduction and Non-Visual Light Perception. Humana Press, p 403–420
Harman D (1972) The biologic clock: the mitochondria? J Am Geriatr Soc 20(4): 145–7
Miquel J, et al. (1980) Mitochondrial role in cell aging. Exp Gerontol 15(6): 575–91
Jarrett SG, et al. (2008) Mitochondrial DNA damage and its potential role in retinal degeneration. Prog Retin Eye Res 27(6): 596–607
Wang AL, et al. (2008) Increased mitochondrial DNA damage and down-regulation of DNA repair enzymes in aged rodent retinal pigment epithelium and choroid. Mol Vis 14: 644–51
Nordgaard CL, et al. (2008) Mitochondrial proteomics of the retinal pigment epithelium at progressive stages of age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49(7): 2848–55
Kenney MC, et al. (2010) Characterization of Retinal and Blood Mitochondrial DNA from Age-related Macular Degeneration Patients. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci [epub ahead of print]
Kanski J (2003) Clinical Ophthalmology: A Systematic Approach. Heinemann, Butterworth
Salvi SM, Akhtar S, Currie Z (2006) Ageing changes in the eye. Postgrad Med J 82(971): 581–7
Guirao A, et al. (1999) Average optical performance of the human eye as a function of age in a normal population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 40(1): 203–13
Langrova H, et al. (2008) Age-related changes in retinal functional topography. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49(11): 5024–32
Mohidin N, Yap MK, Jacobs RJ (1999) Influence of age on the multifocal electroretinography. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 19(6): 481–8
Tzekov RT, Gerth C, Werner JS (2004) Senescence of human multifocal electroretinogram components: a localized approach. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 242(7): 549–60
Bonnel S, Mohand-Said S, Sahel JA (2003) The aging of the retina. Exp Gerontol 38(8): 825–31
Birch DG, Anderson JL (1992), Standardized full-field electroretinography. Normal values and their variation with age. Arch Ophthalmol 110(11): 1571–6
Jackson GR, Owsley C (2000) Scotopic sensitivity during adulthood. Vision Res 40(18): 2467–73
Owsley C, et al. (2000) Psychophysical evidence for rod vulnerability in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41(1): 267–73
Danias J, et al. (2003) Quantitative analysis of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss in aging DBA/2NNia glaucomatous mice: comparison with RGC loss in aging C57/BL6 mice. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 44(12): 5151–62
Neufeld AH, et al. (2002) Loss of retinal ganglion cells following retinal ischemia: the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Exp Eye Res 75(5): 521–8
Eliasieh K, Liets LC, Chalupa LM (2007) Cellular reorganization in the human retina during normal aging. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48(6): 2824–30
Alamouti B, Funk J (2003) Retinal thickness decreases with age: an OCT study. Br J Ophthalmol 87(7): 899–901
Eriksson U, Alm A (2009) Macular thickness decreases with age in normal eyes: a study on the macular thickness map protocol in the Stratus OCT. Br J Ophthalmol 93(11): 1448–52
Cavallotti C, et al. (2004) Age-related changes in the human retina. Can J Ophthalmol 39(1): 61–8
Feuer WJ, et al. (2010) Topographic Differences in the Agerelated Changes in the Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer of Normal Eyes Measured by Stratus Optical Coherence Tomography. J Glaucoma [epub ahead of print]
Gao H, Hollyfield JG (1992) Aging of the human retina. Differential loss of neurons and retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33(1): 1–17
Curcio CA, et al. (1993) Aging of the human photoreceptor mosaic: evidence for selective vulnerability of rods in central retina. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34(12): 3278–96
Leveillard T, et al. (2004) Identification and characterization of rod-derived cone viability factor. Nat Genet 36(7): 755–9
Chalmel F, et al. (2007) Rod-derived Cone Viability Factor-2 is a novel bifunctional-thioredoxin-like protein with therapeutic potential. BMC Mol Biol 8: 74
Fridlich R, et al. (2009) The thioredoxin-like protein rod-derived cone viability factor (RdCVFL) interacts with TAU and inhibits its phosphorylation in the retina. Mol Cell Proteomics 8(6): 1206–18
Aggarwal P, Nag TC, Wadhwa S (2007) Age-related decrease in rod bipolar cell density of the human retina: an immunohistochemical study. J Biosci 32(2): 293–8
Liets LC, et al. (2006) Dendrites of rod bipolar cells sprout in normal aging retina. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(32): 12156–60
Terzibasi E, et al. (2009) Age-dependent remodelling of retinal circuitry. Neurobiol Aging 30(5): 819–28
Chen M, et al. (2010) Immune activation in Retinal Aging: A Gene Expression Study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci [epub ahead of print]
Chan-Ling T, et al. (2007) Inflammation and breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier during »physiological aging« in the rat retina: a model for CNS aging. Microcirculation 14(1): 63–76
Xu H, Chen M, Forrester JV (2009) Para-inflammation in the aging retina. Prog Retin Eye Res 28(5): 348–68
Marmor F, Wolfensberger TJ (1998) The Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Oxford University Press, New York Oxford
Hogan MJ, Alvarado JA, Weddell JE (1971) Histology of the Human Eye. Saunders, Philadelphia
Boulton M, Dayhaw-Barker P (2001) The role of the retinal pigment epithelium: topographical variation and ageing changes. Eye 15(Pt 3): 384–9
Gouras P, et al. (2010) Topographic and age-related changes of the retinal epithelium and Bruch‘s membrane of rhesus monkeys. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 248(7): 973–84
Streeten BW (1969) Development of the human retinal pigment epithelium and the posterior segment. Arch Ophthalmol 81(3): 383–94
Marshall J (1987) The ageing retina: physiology or pathology? Eye 1: 282–295
Burke JM, BS McKay, GJ (1991) Jaffe Retinal pigment epithelial cells of the posterior pole have fewer Na/K adenosine triphosphatase pumps than peripheral cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 32(7): 2042–6
Burke JM, Twining SS (1988) Regional comparisons of cathepsin D activity in bovine retinal pigment epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 29(12): 1789–93
Cabral L, et al. (1990) Regional distribution of lysosomal enzymes in the canine retinal pigment epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31(4): 670–6
Panda-Jonas S, Jonas JB, Jakobczyk-Zmija M (1996) Retinal pigment epithelial cell count, distribution, correlations in normal human eyes. Am J Ophthalmol 121(2): 181–9
Del Priore LV, Kuo YH, Tezel TH (2002) Age-related changes in human RPE cell density and apoptosis proportion in situ. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 43(10): 3312–8
Dorey CK, et al. (1989) Cell loss in the aging retina. Relationship to lipofuscin accumulation and macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 30(8): 1691–9
Feeney-Burns L, Hilderbrand ES, Eldridge S (1984) Aging human RPE: morphometric analysis of macular, equatorial, and peripheral cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 25(2): 195–200
Burke JM Hjelmeland LM (2005) Mosaicism of the retinal pigment epithelium: seeing the small picture. Mol Interv 5(4): 241–9
Boulton M, et al. (2004) The photoreactivity of ocular lipofuscin. Photochem Photobiol Sci 3(8): 759–64
Boulton ME (2009) Lipofuscin of the retinal pigment epithelium, in Fundus Autofluorescence, N. Lois and J.V. Forrester, Editors. Wolters Kluwer/Lipincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, p 14–26
Rozanowska M, Rozanowski B (2008) Visual transduction and age-related changes in lipofuscin. In: Tombran-Tink J, Barnstable CJ (eds) Visual Transduction and Non-Visual Light Perception. Humana Press, p 421–462
Ng KP, et al. (2008) Retinal pigment epithelium lipofuscin proteomics. Mol Cell Proteomics 7(7): 1397–405
Sparrow JR Boulton M (2005) RPE lipofuscin and its role in retinal pathobiology. Exp Eye Res 80(5): 595–606
Crouch RK, et al. (2010) Human A2E levels are higher in the peripheral (extramacular) RPE than in the macular region of the RPE IOVS. ARVO-E abstract 1300
Boulton M, et al. (1990) Age-related changes in the morphology, absorption and fluorescence of melanosomes and lipofuscin granules of the retinal pigment epithelium. Vision Res 30(9): 1291–303
Clancy KMR, et al. (2000) Atomic force microscopy and near-field scanning optical microscopy measurements of single human retinal lipofuscin granules. J Phys Chem B 104: 12098–12101
Haralampus-Grynaviski NM, et al. (2001) Probing the spatial dependence of the emission spectrum of single human retinal lipofuscin granules using near-field scanning optical microscopy. Photochem Photobiol 74(2): 364–8
Rozanowska M, et al. (1995) Blue light-induced reactivity of retinal age pigment. In vitro generation of oxygen-reactive species. J Biol Chem 270(32): 18825–30
Rozanowska M, et al. (1998) Blue light-induced singlet oxygen generation by retinal lipofuscin in non-polar media. Free Radic Biol Med 24(7–8): 1107–12
Gaillard ER, et al. (1995) Photophysical studies on human retinal lipofuscin. Photochem Photobiol 61(5): 448–53
Rozanowska M, et al. (2004) Age-related changes in the photoreactivity of retinal lipofuscin granules: role of chloroforminsoluble components. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45(4): 1052–60
Davies S, et al. (2001) Photocytotoxicity of lipofuscin in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 31(2): 256–65
Shamsi FA, Boulton M (2001) Inhibition of RPE lysosomal and antioxidant activity by the age pigment lipofuscin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42(12): 3041–6
Godley BF, et al. (2005) Blue light induces mitochondrial DNA damage and free radical production in epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 280(22): 21061–6
Schutt F, et al. (2000) Photodamage to human RPE cells by A2-E, a retinoid component of lipofuscin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41(8): 2303–8
Sparrow JR Cai B (2001) Blue light-induced apoptosis of A2Econtaining RPE: involvement of caspase-3 and protection by Bcl-2. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42(6): 1356–62
Sparrow JR, Nakanishi K, Parish CA (2000) The lipofuscin fluorophore A2E mediates blue light-induced damage to retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41(7): 1981–9
Pawlak A, et al. (2003) Comparison of the aerobic photoreactivity of A2E with its precursor retinal. Photochem Photobiol 77(3): 253–8
Rozanowska M, Sarna T (2005) Light-induced damage to the retina: role of rhodopsin chromophore revisited. Photochem Photobiol 81(6): 1305–30
Ben-Shabat S, et al. (2002) Formation of a nonaoxirane from A2E, a lipofuscin fluorophore related to macular degeneration, evidence of singlet oxygen involvement. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 41(5): 814–7
Zhou J, et al. (2006) Complement activation by photooxidation products of A2E, a lipofuscin constituent of the retinal pigment epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(44): 16182–7
Bergmann M, et al. (2004) Inhibition of the ATP-driven proton pump in RPE lysosomes by the major lipofuscin fluorophore A2-E may contribute to the pathogenesis of agerelated macular degeneration. FASEB J 18(3): 562–4
Holz FG, et al. (1999) Inhibition of lysosomal degradative functions in RPE cells by a retinoid component of lipofuscin. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 40(3): 737–43
Liu J, et al. (2008) Restoration of lysosomal pH in RPE cells from cultured human and ABCA4(-/-) mice: pharmacologic approaches and functional recovery. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49(2): 772–80
Vives-Bauza C, et al. (2008) The age lipid A2E and mitochondrial dysfunction synergistically impair phagocytosis by retinal pigment epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 283(36): 24770–80
Finnemann SC, Leung LW, Rodriguez-Boulan E (2002) The lipofuscin component A2E selectively inhibits phagolysosomal degradation of photoreceptor phospholipid by the retinal pigment epithelium. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99(6): 3842–7
Drenos F, Kirkwood TB (2005) Modelling the disposable soma theory of ageing. Mech Ageing Dev 126(1): 99–103
Boulton ME (1998) The role of melanin in the RPE. In: Marmor M, Wolfensberger T (eds) The Retinal Pigment Epithelium. University Press, Oxford p 68–85
Weiter JJ, et al. (1986) Retinal pigment epithelial lipofuscin and melanin and choroidal melanin in human eyes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 27(2): 145–52
Kayatz P, et al. (2001) Oxidation causes melanin fluorescence. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42(1): 241–6
Sarna T, et al. (2003) Loss of melanin from human RPE with aging: possible role of melanin photooxidation. Exp Eye Res 76(1): 89–98
Sarna T (1992) Properties and function of the ocular melanin – a photophysical view. J Photochem Photobiol B Biol 12: 215–258
Zareba M, et al. (2006) Oxidative stress in ARPE-19 cultures: do melanosomes confer cytoprotection? Free Radic Biol Med 40(1): 87–100
Rozanowski B, et al. (2008) The phototoxicity of aged human retinal melanosomes. Photochem Photobiol 84(3): 650–7
Feeney L (1978) Lipofuscin and melanin of human retinal pigment epithelium. Fluorescence, enzyme cytochemical, and ultrastructural studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 17(7): 583–600
Feher J, et al. (2006) Mitochondrial alterations of retinal pigment epithelium in age-related macular degeneration. Neurobiol Aging 27(7): 983–93
Reeve AK, Krishnan KJ, Turnbull D (2008) Mitochondrial DNA mutations in disease, aging, and neurodegeneration. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1147: 21–9
Jarrett S, AS Lewin, Boulton ME (2010) The importance of mitochondria in age-related and inherited eye disorders. Ophthalmic Res 44: 179–190
Karunadharma PP, et al. (2010) Mitochondrial DNA Damage as a Potential Mechanism for Age-related Macular Degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci [epub ahead of print]
Udar N, et al. (2009) Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups associated with age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 50(6): 2966–74
Barreau E, et al. (1996) Accumulation of mitochondrial DNA deletions in human retina during aging. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 37(2): 384–91
Nordgaard CL, et al. (2006) Proteomics of the retinal pigment epithelium reveals altered protein expression at progressive stages of age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47(3): 815–22
Nordgaard CL., et al. (2008) Mitochondrial proteomics of the retinal pigment epithelium at progressive stages of age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49(7): 2848–2855
Decanini A, et al. (207) Changes in select redox proteins of the retinal pigment epithelium in age-related macular degeneration. Am J Ophthalmol 143(4): 607–15
Godley BF, et al. (2008) Mitochondrial DNA repair capacity decreases with progression of age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 49: ARVO E-abstract
Justilien V, et al. (2007) SOD2 knockdown mouse model of early AMD. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 48(10): 4407–20
Imamura Y, et al. (2006) Drusen, choroidal neovascularization, and retinal pigment epithelium dysfunction in SOD1-deficient mice: a model of age-related macular degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(30): 11282–7
Jarrett SG, Boulton ME (2005) Antioxidant up-regulation and increased nuclear DNA protection play key roles in adaptation to oxidative stress in epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 38(10): 1382–91
Ballinger SW, et al. (1999) Hydrogen peroxide causes significant mitochondrial DNA damage in human RPE cells. Exp Eye Res 68(6): 765–72
Jarrett SG, Boulton ME (2007) Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase offers protection against oxidative and alkylation damage to the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the retinal pigment epithelium. Ophthalmic Res 39(4): 213–23
Schutt F, et al. (2007) Accumulation of A2-E in mitochondrial membranes of cultured RPE cells. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 245(3): 391–8
Hayasaka S (1989) Aging changes in lipofuscin, lysosomes and melanin in the macular area of human retina and choroid. Jpn J Ophthalmol 33(1): 36–42
Boulton M, et al. (1994) Regional variation and age-related changes of lysosomal enzymes in the human retinal pigment epithelium. Br J Ophthalmol 78(2): 125–9
Ogawa T, et al. (2005) Changes in the spatial expression of genes with aging in the mouse RPE/choroid. Mol Vis 11: 380–6
Mizushima N, et al. (2008) Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion. Nature 451(7182): 1069–75
Cuervo AM, et al. (2005) Autophagy and aging: the importance of maintaining »clean« cells. Autophagy 1(3): 131–40
Cuervo AM (2004) Autophagy: many paths to the same end. Mol Cell Biochem 263(1–2): 55–72
Klionsky D, et al. (2007) How shall I eat thee? Autophagy 3(5): 413–6
Sohal RS (1981) Age Pigments. Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press
Terman A, Gustafsson B, Brunk UT (2007) Autophagy, organelles and ageing. J Pathol 211(2): 134–43
Boulton M, et al. (1989) The formation of autofluorescent granules in cultured human RPE. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 30(1): 82–9
Wassell J, et al. (1998) Fluorescence properties of autofluorescent granules generated by cultured human RPE cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 39(8): 1487–92
Nilsson SE, et al. (2003) Aging of cultured retinal pigment epithelial cells: oxidative reactions, lipofuscin formation and blue light damage. Doc Ophthalmol 106(1): 13–6
Burke JM, Skumatz CM (1998) Autofluorescent inclusions in long-term postconfluent cultures of retinal pigment epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 39(8): 1478–86
Krohne TU, et al. (2010) Effects of lipid peroxidation products on lipofuscinogenesis and autophagy in human retinal pigment epithelial cells. Exp Eye Res 90(3): 465–71
Haralampus-Grynaviski NM, et al. (2003) Spectroscopic and morphological studies of human retinal lipofuscin granules. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 100(6): 3179–84
Kiffin R, Bandyopadhyay U, Cuervo AM (2006) Oxidative stress and autophagy. Antioxid Redox Signal 8(1–2): 152–62
Kurz T, Terman A, Brunk UT (2007) Autophagy, ageing and apoptosis: the role of oxidative stress and lysosomal iron. Arch Biochem Biophys 462(2): 220–30
Wang AL, et al. (2009) Autophagy and exosomes in the aged retinal pigment epithelium: possible relevance to drusen formation and age-related macular degeneration. PLoS One 4(1): e4160
Winkler BS, et al. (1999) Oxidative damage and age-related macular degeneration. Mol Vis 5: 32
Beatty S, et al. (2000) The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol 45(2): 115–34
Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM (2007) Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, New York
AREDS (2001) A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss: AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol 119(10): 1417–36
Barker FM, 2nd (2010) Dietary supplementation: effects on visual performance and occurrence of AMD and cataracts. Curr Med Res Opin 26(8): 2011–23
Liles MR, Newsome DA, Oliver PD (1991) Antioxidant enzymes in the aging human retinal pigment epithelium. Arch Ophthalmol 109(9): 1285–8
Miyamura N, et al. (2004) Topographic and age-dependent expression of heme oxygenase-1 and catalase in the human retinal pigment epithelium. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45(5): 1562–5
Friedrichson T, et al. (1995) Vitamin E in macular and peripheral tissues of the human eye. Curr Eye Res 14(8): 693–701
Castorina C, et al. (1992) Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant enzymatic systems in rat retina as a function of age. Neurochem Res 17(6): 599–604
Beatty S, et al. (2001) Macular pigment and risk for age-related macular degeneration in subjects from a Northern European population. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 42(2): 439–46
Maeda A, Crabb JW, Palczewski K (2005) Microsomal glutathione S-transferase 1 in the retinal pigment epithelium: protection against oxidative stress and a potential role in aging. Biochemistry 44(2): 480–9
Liao JH, Lee JS, Chiou SH (2002) C-terminal lysine truncation increases thermostability and enhances chaperone-like function of porcine alphaB-crystallin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 297(2): 309–16
Organisciak D, et al. (2006) Genetic, age and light mediated effects on crystallin protein expression in the retina. Photochem Photobiol 82(4): 1088–96
Jarrett SG, Albon J, Boulton M (2006) The contribution of DNA repair and antioxidants in determining cell type-specific resistance to oxidative stress. Free Radic Res, 40(11): 1155–65
Crawford DR, Davies KJ (1994) Adaptive response and oxidative stress. Environ Health Perspect 102 Suppl 10: 25–8
Booij JC, et al. (2010) The dynamic nature of Bruch’s membrane. Prog Retin Eye Res 29(1): 1–18
Curcio CA, et al. (2009) Aging, age-related macular degeneration, the response-to-retention of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins. Prog Retin Eye Res 28(6): 393–422
Guymer R, Luthert P, Bird A (1999) Changes in Bruch’s membrane and related structures with age. Prog Retin Eye Res 18(1): 59–90
Hagema, GS, Mullins RF (1999) Molecular composition of drusen as related to substructural phenotype. Molecular Vision 5: 28
Anderson DH, Radeke MJ, Gallo NB et al. (2010) The pivotal role of the complement system in aging and age-related macular degeneration: hypothesis re-visited. Prog Retin Eye Res 29(2):95–112
Bird AC (1991) Doyne Lecture. Pathogenesis of retinal pigment epithelial detachment in the elderly; the relevance of Bruch’s membrane change. Eye 5: 1–12
Chong NH, et al. (2005) Decreased thickness and integrity of the macular elastic layer of Bruch‘s membrane correspond to the distribution of lesions associated with age-related macular degeneration. Am J Pathol 166(1): 241–51
Ugarte M, Hussain AA, Marshall J (2006) An experimental study of the elastic properties of the human Bruch‘s membranechoroid complex: relevance to ageing. Br J Ophthalmol 90(5): 621–6
Handa JT, et al. (1999) Increase in the advanced glycation end product pentosidine in Bruch’s membrane with age. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 40(3): 775–9
Hewitt AT, Nakazawa K, Newsome DA (1989) Analysis of newly synthesized Bruch‘s membrane proteoglycans. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 30(3): 478–86
Marshall J, et al. (1998) Aging and Bruch’s membrane. In: Marmor MF, Wolfensberger TJ (eds) The Retinal Pigment Epithelium. Oxford University Press, New York Oxford, p 669–692
Friedman DS, et al. (2004) Prevalence of age-related macular degeneration in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 122(4): 564–72
Martin JE, Sheaff MT (2007) The pathology of ageing: concepts and mechanisms. J Pathol 211(2): 111–3
Curcio CA, Medeiros NE, Millican CL (1996) Photoreceptor loss in age-related macular degeneration. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 37(7): 1236–49
Solbach U, et al. (1997) Imaging of retinal autofluorescence in patients with age-related macular degeneration. Retina 17(5): 385–9
Ambati J, et al. (2003) An animal model of age-related macular degeneration in senescent Ccl-2- or Ccr-2-deficient mice. Nat Med 9(11): 1390–7
Malek G, et al. (2005) Apolipoprotein E allele-dependent pathogenesis: a model for age-related retinal degeneration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102(33): 11900–5
Bird A, Marshall J (1986) Retinal pigment epithelial detachments in the elderly. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 105: 674–682
Archer D (1983) Retinal neovascularization. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 103: 2–26
Eagle RC, Jr. (1984) Mechanisms of maculopathy. Ophthalmology 91(6): 613–25
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Boulton, M.E. (2011). Alterung der Netzhaut und des retinalen Pigmentepithels. In: Altersabhängige Makuladegeneration. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20870-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20870-6_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-20869-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-20870-6
eBook Packages: Medicine (German Language)