Abstract
Welfare considerations during incubation and for the first 3 months post-hatching are described for ratite chicks. Welfare of embryos is discussed in the context of the animal being sentient and able to elicit a change in its environment. It is suggested that during development, typical definitions of what constitutes welfare cannot be easily applied to embryos and indeed they may be inappropriate. Only after internal pipping into the air space does an embryo exhibit a demonstrable ability to elicit a response from its parents when incubation conditions are not optimal. Nevertheless, good practice will optimise the incubation environment and yield high hatchability and chick quality, which automatically serves to maximise welfare. Compared with poultry species, our understanding of the requirements of ratite chicks is very poor. There are limited scientific studies into appropriate rearing conditions and few that are directly related to welfare. Welfare considerations during rearing are described in relation to factors such as behaviour, feeding, environment, transport and health issues. Much of this work has been carried out with ostriches, with little work on emus or rheas. Chick welfare in all commercially important ratites requires more targeted research in order to promote best practice around the world.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Barri FR, Navarro JL, Maceira NO, Martella MB (2005) Rearing Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) chicks: is adoption more effective than the artificial intensive system? Br Poult Sci 46:22–25
Beaver PW (1978) Ontogeny of vocalization in the greater rhea. Auk 95:382–388
Bertram BCR (1992) The ostrich communal nesting system. Princeton University Press, Princeton, USA
Bertram B (1993) Welfare standards for the humane farming of ostriches in the United Kingdom. RSPCA, Horsham, UK
Blache D, Blackberry MA, Van Cleeff J, Martin GB (2001) Plasma thyroid hormones and growth hormone in embryonic and growing emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Rep Fertil Dev 13:125–132
Boerjan M (2002) Programs for single stafe incubation and chick quality. Avian Poult Biol Rev 13:237–238
Brown CR, Prior SA (1999) Development of body temperature regulation in ostrich chicks. Br Poult Sci 40:529–535
Brua RB (2002) Parent-embryo interactions. In: Deeming DC (ed) Avian incubation: behaviour, environment and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 88–99
Bruning DF (1973) Breeding and rearing rheas in captivity. Int Zool Yearb 13:163–174
Bubier NE, Lambert MS, Deeming DC, Ayres LL, Sibly RM (1996) Time budget and colour preferences (with special reference to feeding) of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks in captivity. Br Poult Sci 37:547–551
Christensen JW, Nielsen BL (2004) Environmental enrichment for ostrich, Struthio camelus, chicks. Anim Welf 13:119–124
Cooper RS (2000) Management of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks. World Poult Sci J 56:33–44
Cooper SM, Palmer T (1994) Observations on the dietary choice of free-ranging juvenile ostriches. Ost 66:251–255
Crowther C, Davies R, Glass W (2003) The effects of night transportation on the heart rate and skin temperature of ostriches during real transportation. Meat Sci 64:365–370
Dawson D, Deeming DC (1997) Thyroid function in ostriches compared to that in non-ratite birds. In: XIII international congress of comparative endocrinology, Yokohama, Japan, 16–21 Nov 1997, pp 439–444
Dawson A, Deeming DC, Dick ACK, Sharp PJ (1996) Plasma thyroxine levels in farmed ostriches (Struthio camelus) in relation to age, body weight and growth hormone. Gen Comp Endocrinol 103:308–315
Deeming DC (1993) The incubation requirements of ostrich (Struthio camelus) eggs and embryos. In: Proceedings Meeting Australian Ostrich Association, Proceeding 217 Post Graduate Comm Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, pp 1–66
Deeming DC (1995a) The hatching sequence of ostrich (Struthio camelus) embryos with notes on development as observed by candling. Br Poult Sci 36:67–78
Deeming DC (1995b) Possible effects of microbial infection on yolk utilisation in ostrich chicks. Vet Rec 136:270–271
Deeming DC (1997) Ratite egg incubation: a practical guide. Ratite Conference Books, High Wycombe
Deeming DC (2002a) Avian incubation: behaviour, environment and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Deeming DC (2002b) The fall and rise of ratite production. In: Proceedings of 11th European Poultry Conference, Bremen, Germany, 6–10 Sept 2002, CD-ROM
Deeming DC (2005) Yolk sac, body dimensions, and hatchling quality of ducklings, chicks and poults. Br Poult Sci 46:560–564
Deeming DC, Ar A (1999) Factors affecting the success of commercial incubation. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 159–190
Deeming DC, Ayres L (1994) Factors affecting the rate of growth of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks in captivity. Vet Rec 135:617–622
Deeming DC, Bubier NE (1999) Behaviour in natural and captive environments. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 83–104
Deeming DC, Ayres L, Ayres FJ (1993) Observations on the first commercial production of ostrich (Struthio camelus) eggs in the UK: rearing of chicks. Vet Rec 132:627–631
Deeming DC, Dick ACK, Ayres LL (1996) Ostrich chick rearing. A stockman’s guide. Ratite Conference Books, Oxfordshire
Dick ACK, Deeming DC (1996) Veterinary problems encountered on an ostrich farms in Great Britain. In: Deeming DC (ed) Improving our understanding of ratites in a farming environment. Ratite Conference, Oxfordshire, pp 40–41
Elston JJ, Beck MM, Scheideler SE (1998) Behavioural analysis of emu chicks and breeding adults. In: Ratites in a competitive world. Proceedings of 2nd international ratite congress, Oudtshoorn, South Africa, 21–25 Sept 1998, pp 177–180
Foggin C, Van Niekerk A (1995) Ostriches in the wild, colony breeding and foster rearing. In: Proceedings of 5th Australian Ostrich Association Conference, Goldcoast, Australia, pp 111–116
Foroudi F, Asfar A, Kolli ME (2008) The effect of dietary probiotic supplementation on production performance of ostrich chicks. Aust J Exp Agric 48(10):12–13
Gefen E, Ar A (2001) Gas exchange and energy metabolism of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) embryo. Comp Biol Phys A130:689–699
Glatz PC (2005) Effect of declawing on behaviour and skin quality of ostriches. In: Proceedings of the 3rd international ratite science symposium (WPSA), 14–16 Oct 2005, Madrid, pp 157–162
Goonewardene LA, Wang Z, Okine E, Zuidhof MJ, Dunk E, Onderka D (2003) Comparative growth characteristics of Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae). J Appl Poult Res 12:27–31
Gri LR, Martella MB, Navarro JL (2008) Efficacy of probiotics in intensively reared Greater Rhea (Rhea americana) chicks. Arch Geflüg 72:136–139
Hill D (2001) Chick length uniformity profiles as a field measurement of chick quality? Avian Poult Biol Rev 12:188
Huchzermeyer FW (1998) Diseases of ostriches and other ratites. Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, South Africa
Huchzermeyer FW (1999) Veterinary problems. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 293–320
Kamau JM, Patrick BT, Mushi EZ (2002) The effect of mixing and translocating juvenile ostriches (Struthio camelus) in Botswana on the heterophil to lymphocyte ratio. Trop Anim Heal Prod 34:249–256
Kocan AA, Crawford JA (1994) An ostrich farmers handbook. The Ostrich News, Cache, Oklahoma
Lábaque MC, Navarro JL, Martella MB (1999) A note on chick adoption: a complementary strategy for rearing rheas. Appl Anim Behav Sci 63:165–170
Lambert MS, Deeming DC, Sibly RM, Ayres LL (1995) The relationship between pecking behaviour and growth rate of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks in captivity. Appl Anim Behav Sci 46:93–101
Lourens A, van den Brand H, Meijerhof R, Kemp B (2005) Effect of eggshell temperature during incubation on embryo development, hatchability and post-hatch development. Poult Sci 84:914–920
Meyer A, Cloete SWP, Brown CR, van Schalkwyk SJ (2002) Declawing ostrich (Struthio camelus domesticus) chicks to minimise skin damage during rearing. S Afr J Anim Sci 32:192–200
Meyer A, Cloete SWP, Brown CR (2003) The influence of separate-sex rearing on ostrich behaviour and skin damage. S Afr J Anim Sci 33:95–104
Minka NS, Ayo J (2007) Road transportation effect on rectal temperature, respiration and heart rates of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks. Veterinarski Ark 77:39–46
Mitchell MA (1999) Welfare. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 217–230
Mitchell MA, Kettlewell PJ, Sandercock DA, Maxwell MH, Spackman D (1996) Physiological stress in ostriches during road transport. In: Deeming DC (ed) Improving our understanding of ratites in a farming environment. Ratite Conference, Oxfordshire, pp 79–80
Mushi EZ, Binta MG, Chabo RG, Isa JF, Phuti MS (1999) Limb deformities of farmed ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks in Botswana. Trop Anim Heal Prod 31:397–404
Noy Y, Sklan D (1997) Posthatch development in poultry. J Appl Poult Sci 1:344–354
Noy Y, Uni Z, Sklan D (1996) Routes of yolk utilisation in the newly-hatched chick. Br Poult Sci 37:987–996
Paxton CM, Bubier NE, Deeming DC (1997) Feeding and pecking behaviour in ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks in captivity. Br Poult Sci 38:151–155
Perelman B (1999) Veterinary problems. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 321–346
Piccione G, Costa A, Giudice E, Caola G (2005) Preliminary investigation into thermal stress during diurnal road transportation of young ostriches (Struthio camelus). Arch Tierz Dummerstorf 48:194–200
Rogers LJ (1995) The development of brain and behaviour in the chicken. CAB International, Wallingford, p 22
Sales J, Smith WA (1995) Incubation and management. In: Smith WA (ed) Practical guide for ostrich management and ostrich products. Alltech, Stellenbosch University Printers, South Africa, pp 3–7
Samson J (1996) Behavioral problems of farmed ostriches in Canada. Can Vet J 37:412–414
Smit DJvZ (1963) Ostrich farming in the Little Karoo. Bulletin No. 358, Department of Agricultural Technical Services, Pretoria, South Africa
Speer BL (1996) Developmental problems in young ratites. In: Tully TN, Shane SM (eds) Ratite management, medicine and surgery. Krieger, Malabar, FL, pp 147–154
Tona K, Onagbesan O, Jego Y, Kamers B, Decuypere E, Bruggemann V (2004) Comparison of physiological parameters during incubation, chick quality and growth performance of broilers from three lines of broiler breeders differing in genetic composition and growth rate. Poult Sci 83:507–513
Tona K, Onagbesan O, De Ketelaere B, Bruggemann V, Decuypere E (2005) Interrelationships between chick quality parameters and the effect of individual parameter on broiler relative growth to 7 days of age. Av Poult Biol Rev 16:71–72
van Schalkwyk SJ, Cloete SWP, Brown CR, Brand Z (2000) Hatching success of ostrich eggs in relation to setting, turning and angle of rotation. Br Poult Sci 41:46–52
Verwoerd D, Deeming DC, Angel CR, Perelman B (1999) Rearing environments around the world. In: Deeming DC (ed) The ostrich: biology, production and health. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 191–216
Wöhr AC, Erhard M (2005) Ostrich farming in Germany – An animal welfare issue? In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Ratite Science Symposium (WPSA), Madrid, Spain, pp 145–156
Wotton SB, Hewitt L (1999) Transportation of ostriches – a review. Vet Rec 145:725–731
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Deeming, D.C. (2011). Incubation and Chick Rearing. In: Glatz, P., Lunam, C., Malecki, I. (eds) The Welfare of Farmed Ratites. Animal Welfare, vol 11. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19297-5_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19297-5_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-19296-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-19297-5
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)