Abstract
Evidence obtained during the last few years has greatly extended our understanding of the cell surface receptors that mediate infections of retroviruses and has provided many surprising insights. In contrast to other cell surface components such as lectins or proteoglycans that influence infections indirectly by enhancing virus adsorption onto specific cells, the true receptors induce conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that are essential for infection. One surprise is that all of the cell surface receptors for γ-retroviruses are proteins that have multiple transmembrane (TM) sequences, compatible with their identification in known instances as transporters for important solutes. In striking contrast, almost all other animal viruses use receptors that exclusively have single TM sequences, with the sole proven exception we know of being the coreceptors used by lentiviruses. This evidence strongly suggests that virus genera have been prevented because of their previous evolutionary adaptations from switching their specificities between single-TM and multi-TM receptors. This evidence also implies that γ-retroviruses formed by divergent evolution from a common origin millions of years ago and that individual viruses have occasionally jumped between species (zoonoses) while retaining their commitment to using the orthologous receptor of the new host. Another surprise is that many γ-retroviruses use not just one receptor but pairs of closely related receptors as alternatives. This appears to have enhanced viral survival by severely limiting the likelihood of host escape mutations. All of the receptors used by γ-retroviruses contain hypervariable regions that are often heavily glycosylated and that control the viral host range properties, consistent with the idea that these sequences are battlegrounds of virus-host coevolution. However, in contrast to previous assumptions, we propose that γ-retroviruses have become adapted to recognize conserved sites that are important for the receptor’s natural function and that the hypervariable sequences have been elaborated by the hosts as defense bulwarks that surround the conserved viral attachment sites. Previously, it was believed that binding to receptors directly triggers a series of conformational changes in the viral envelope glycoproteins that culminate in fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. However, new evidence suggests that γ-retroviral association with receptors triggers an obligatory interaction or cross-talk between envelope glycoproteins on the viral surface. If this intermediate step is prevented, infection fails. Conversely, in several circumstances this cross-talk can be induced in the absence of a cell surface receptor for the virus, in which case infection can proceed efficiently. This new evidence strongly implies that the role of cell surface receptors in infections of γ-retroviruses (and perhaps of other enveloped animal viruses) is more complex and interesting than was previously imagined.
Recently, another gammaretroviral receptor with multiple transmembrane sequences was cloned. See Prassolov, Y., Zhang, D., Ivanov, D., Lohler, J., Ross, S.R., and Stocking, C. Sodium-dependent myo-inositol transporter 1 is a receptor for Mus cervicolor M813 murine leukemia virus.
Chapter PDF
References
Aaronson SA, and Stephenson JR (1973) Independent segregation of loci for activation of biologically distinguishable RNA C-type viruses in mouse cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 70:2055–2058
Abkowitz JL, Holly RD, and Adamson JW (1987) Retrovirus-induced feline pure red cell aplasia: the kinetics of erythroid marrow failure. J Cell Physiol 132:571–577
Abkowitz JL, Holly RD, and Grant CK (1987) Retrovirus-induced feline pure red cell aplasia. Hematopoietic progenitors are infected with feline leukemia virus and erythroid burst-forming cells are uniquely sensitive to heterologous complement. J Clin Invest 80:1056–1063
Adkins HB, Blacklow SC, and Young JA (2001) Two functionally distinct forms of a retroviral receptor explain the nonreciprocal receptor interference among subgroups B, D, and E avian leukosis viruses. J Virol 75:3520–3526
Adkins HB, Brojatsch J, Naughton J, Rolls MM, Pesola JM, and Young JA (1997) Identification of a cellular receptor for subgroup E avian leukosis virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:11617–11622
Agnello V, Abel G, Elfahal M, Knight GB, and Zhang QX (1999) Hepatitis C virus and other flaviviridae viruses enter cells via low density lipoprotein receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:12766–12771
Albritton LM, Kim JW, Tseng L, and Cunningham JM (1993) Envelope-binding domain in the cationic amino acid transporter determines the host range of ecotropic murine retroviruses. J Virol 67:2091–2096
Albritton LM, Tseng L, Scadden D, and Cunningham JM (1989) A putative murine ecotropic retrovirus receptor gene encodes a multiple membrane-spanning protein and confers susceptibility to virus infection. Cell 57:659–666
Allison AC, and Valentine RC (1960) Virus particle adsorption. II. Adsorption of vaccinia and fowl plague viruses to cells in suspension. Biochim Biophys Acta 40:393–399
Alvarez CP, Lasala F, Carrillo J, Muniz O, Corbi AL, and Delgado R (2002) C-type lectins DC-SIGN and L-SIGN mediate cellular entry by Ebola virus in cis and in trans. J Virol 76:6841–6844
Anderson MM, Lauring AS, Burns CC, and Overbaugh J (2000) Identification of a cellular cofactor required for infection by feline leukemia virus. Science 287:1828–1830
Anderson MM, Lauring AS, Robertson S, Dirks C, and Overbaugh J (2001) Feline pit2 functions as a receptor for subgroup b feline leukemia viruses. J Virol 75:10563–10572
Andreadis S, Lavery T, Davis HE, Le Doux JM, Yarmush ML, and Morgan JR (2000) Toward a more accurate quantitation of the activity of recombinant retroviruses: alternatives to titer and multiplicity of infection [corrected and republished article originally printed in J Virol 2000 Feb;74(3):1258-66]. J Virol 74:3431–3439
Aviezer D, Hecht D, Safran M, Eisinger M, David G, and Yayon A (1994) Perlecan, basal lamina proteoglycan, promotes basic fibroblast growth factor-receptor binding, mitogenesis, and angiogenesis. Cell 79:1005–1013
Bachrach E, Marin M, Pelegrin M, Karavanas G, and Piechaczyk M (2000) Efficient cell infection by Moloney murine leukemia virus-derived particles requires minimal amounts of envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 74:8480–8486
Bae Y, Kingsman SM, and Kingsman AJ (1997) Functional dissection of the Moloney murine leukemia virus envelope protein gp70. J Virol 71:2092–2099
Bahnson AB, Dunigan JT, Baysal BE, Mohney T, Atchison RW, Nimgaonkar MT, Ball ED, and Barranger JA (1995) Centrifugal enhancement of retroviral mediated gene transfer. J Virol Methods 54:131–143
Ban J, Portetelle D, Altaner C, Horion B, Milan D, Krchnak V, Burny A, and Kettmann R (1993) Isolation and characterization of a 2.3-kilobase-pair cDNA fragment encoding the binding domain of the bovine leukemia virus cell receptor. J Virol 67:1050–1057
Baranowski E, Ruiz-Jarabo CM, and Domingo E (2001) Evolution of cell recognition by viruses. Science 292:1102–1105
Barbacid M, Hunter E, and Aaronson SA (1979) Avian reticuloendotheliosis viruses: evolutionary linkage with mammalian type C retroviruses. J Virol 30:508–514
Barnett AL, and Cunningham JM (2001) Receptor binding transforms the surface subunit of the mammalian C-type retrovirus envelope protein from an inhibitor to an activator of fusion. J Virol 75:9096–9105
Barnett AL, Davey RA, and Cunningham JM (2001) Modular organization of the Friend murine leukemia virus envelope protein underlies the mechanism of infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:4113–4118
Barnett AL, Wensel WL, Fass D, and Cunningham JM (2002) Structure and mechanism of a “co-receptor” for infection by a pathogenic feline retrovirus. J Virol. In press
Bassin RH, Ruscetti S, Ali I, Haapala DK, and Rein A (1982) Normal DBA/2 mouse cells synthesize a glycoprotein which interferes with MCF virus infection. Virology 123:139–151
Bates P, Young JA, and Varmus HE (1993) A receptor for subgroup A Rous sarcoma virus is related to the low density lipoprotein receptor. Cell 74:1043–1051
Battini JL, Danos O, and Heard JM (1998) Definition of a 14-amino-acid peptide essential for the interaction between the murine leukemia virus amphotropic envelope glycoprotein and its receptor. J Virol 72:428–435
Battini JL, Danos O, and Heard JM (1995) Receptor-binding domain of murine leukemia virus envelope glycoproteins. J Virol 69:713–719
Battini JL, Heard JM, and Danos O (1992) Receptor choice determinants in the envelope glycoproteins of amphotropic, xenotropic, and polytropic murine leukemia viruses. J Virol 66:1468–1475
Battini JL, Rasko JE, and Miller AD (1999) A human cell-surface receptor for xenotropic and polytropic murine leukemia viruses: possible role in G proteincoupled signal transduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:1385–1390
Beaumont T, van Nuenen A, Broersen S, Blattner WA, Lukashov VV, and Schuitemaker H (2001) Reversal of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 IIIB to a neutralization-resistant phenotype in an accidentally infected laboratory worker with a progressive clinical course. J Virol 75:2246–2252
Bechtel MK, Hayes KA, Mathes LE, Pandey R, Stromberg PC, and Roy-Burman P (1999) Recombinant feline leukemia virus (FeLV) variants establish a limited infection with altered cell tropism in specific-pathogen-free cats in the absence of FeLV subgroup A helper virus. Vet Pathol 36:91–99
Benit L, Dessen P, and Heidmann T (2001) Identification, phylogeny, and evolution of retroviral elements based on their envelope genes. J Virol 75:11709–11719
Berg HC, and Purcell EM (1977) Physics of chemoreception. Biophys J 20:193–219
Blaak H, van’t Wout AB, Brouwer M, Hooibrink B, Hovenkamp E, and Schuitemaker H (2000) In vivo HIV-1 infection of CD45RA+CD4+ T cells is established primarily by syncytium-inducing variants and correlates with the rate of CD4+ T cell decline. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:1269–1274
Bleul CC, Wu L, Hoxie JA, Springer TA, and Mackay CR (1997) The HIV coreceptors CXCR4 and CCR5 are differentially expressed and regulated on human T lymphocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:1925–1930
Blond JL, Lavillette D, Cheynet V, Bouton O, Oriol G, Chapel-Fernandes S, Mandrand B, Mallet F, and Cosset FL (2000) An envelope glycoprotein of the human endogenous retrovirus HERV-W is expressed in the human placenta and fuses cells expressing the type D mammalian retrovirus receptor. J Virol 74:3321–3329
Blumenthal R, Sarkar DP, Durell S, Howard DE, and Morris SJ (1996) Dilation of the influenza hemagglutinin fusion pore revealed by the kinetics of individual cellcell fusion events. J Cell Biol 135:63–71
Boeke JD, and Stoye JP 1997. Retrotransposons, endogenous retroviruses, and the evolution of retroelements, p. 343–435. In JM Coffin, Hughes SH, and Varmus HE (eds), Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, New York
Bonham L, Wolgamot G, and Miller AD (1997) Molecular cloning of Mus dunni endogenous virus: an unusual retrovirus in a new murine viral interference group with a wide host range. J Virol 71:4663–4670
Boomer S, Eiden M, Burns CC, and Overbaugh J (1997) Three distinct envelope domains, variably present in subgroup B feline leukemia virus recombinants, mediate Pit1 and Pit2 receptor recognition. J Virol 71:8116–8123
Boomer S, Gasper P, Whalen LR, and Overbaugh J (1994) Isolation of a novel subgroup B feline leukemia virus from a cat infected with FeLV-A. Virology 204:805–810
Borza CM, and Hutt-Fletcher LM (2002) Alternate replication in B cells and epithelial cells switches tropism of Epstein Barr virus. Nat Med 8:594–599
Bottger P, and Pedersen L (2002) Two highly conserved glutamate residues critical for type III sodium-dependent phosphate transport revealed by uncoupling transport function from retroviral receptor function. J Biol Chem. In press
Boulay F, Doms RW, Webster RG, and Helenius A (1988) Posttranslational oligomerization and cooperative acid activation of mixed influenza hemagglutinin trimers. J Cell Biol 106:629–639
Bounou S, Leclerc JE, and Tremblay MJ (2002) Presence of host ICAM-1 in laboratory and clinical strains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 increases virus infectivity and CD4(+)-T-cell depletion in human lymphoid tissue, a major site of replication in vivo. J Virol 76:1004–1014
Bour S, Perrin C, and Strebel K (1999) Cell surface CD4 inhibits HIV-1 particle release by interfering with Vpu activity. J Biol Chem 274:33800–33806
Brelot A, Heveker N, Pleskoff O, Sol N, and Alizon M (1997) Role of the first and third extracellular domains of CXCR-4 in human immunodeficiency virus coreceptor activity. J Virol 71:4744–4751
Brocke L, Bendahan A, Grunewald M, and Kanner BI (2002) Proximity of two oppositely oriented reentrant loops in the glutamate transporter GLT-1 identified by paired cysteine mutagenesis. J Biol Chem 277:3985–3992
Broer A, Wagner C, Lang F, and Broer S (2000) Neutral amino acid transporter ASCT2 displays substrate-induced Na+ exchange and a substrate-gated anion conductance. Biochem J 346:705–710
Brojatsch J, Kristal BS, Viglianti GA, Khiroya R, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1992) Feline leukemia virus subgroup C phenotype evolves through distinct alterations near the N terminus of the envelope surface glycoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:8457–8461
Brojatsch J, Naughton J, Rolls MM, Zingler K, and Young JA (1996) CAR1, a TNFRrelated protein, is a cellular receptor for cytopathic avian leukosis-sarcoma viruses and mediates apoptosis. Cell 87:845–855
Burrage TG, Tignor GH, and Smith AL (1985) Rabies virus binding at neuromuscular junctions. Virus Res 2:273–289
Camerini D, Su HP, Gamez-Torre G, Johnson ML, Zack JA, and Chen IS (2000) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 pathogenesis in SCID-hu mice correlates with syncytium-inducing phenotype and viral replication. J Virol 74:3196–3204
Cantin R, Fortin JF, Lamontagne G, and Tremblay M (1997) The presence of host-derived HLA-DR1 on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 increases viral infectivity. J Virol 71:1922–1930
Carr CM, Chaudhry C, and Kim PS (1997) Influenza hemagglutinin is spring-loaded by a metastable native conformation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:14306–14313
Carr CM, and Kim PS (1993) A spring-loaded mechanism for the conformational change of influenza hemagglutinin. Cell 73:823–832
Chabot DJ, and Broder CC (2000) Substitutions in a homologous region of extracellular loop 2 of CXCR4 and CCR5 alter coreceptor activities for HIV-1 membrane fusion and virus entry. J Biol Chem 275:23774–23782
Chabot DJ, Chen H, Dimitrov DS, and Broder CC (2000) N-linked glycosylation of CXCR4 masks coreceptor function for CCR5-dependent human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates. J Virol 74:4404–4413
Chan DC, Fass D, Berger JM, and Kim PS (1997) Core structure of gp41 from the HIV envelope glycoprotein. Cell 89:263–273
Chaudry GJ, and Eiden MV (1997) Mutational analysis of the proposed gibbon ape leukemia virus binding site in Pit1 suggests that other regions are important for infection. J Virol 71:8078–8081
Chaudry GJ, Farrell KB, Ting YT, Schmitz C, Lie SY, Petropoulos CJ, and Eiden MV (1999) Gibbon ape leukemia virus receptor functions of type III phosphate transporters from CHOK1 cells are disrupted by two distinct mechanisms. J Virol 73:2916–2920
Chen BK, Gandhi RT, and Baltimore D (1996) CD4 down-modulation during infection of human T cells with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 involves independent activities of vpu, env, and nef. J Virol 70:6044–6053
Chen WY, and Townes TM (2000) Molecular mechanism for silencing virally transduced genes involves histone deacetylation and chromatin condensation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:377–382
Chesebro B, and Wehrly K (1985) Different murine cell lines manifest unique patterns of interference to superinfection by murine leukemia viruses. Virology 141:119–129
Chesebro B, Wehrly K, Nishio J, and Evans L (1984) Leukemia induction by a new strain of Friend mink cell focus-inducing virus: synergistic effect of Friend ecotropic murine leukemia virus. J Virol 51:63–70
Chien ML, Foster JL, Douglas JL, and Garcia JV (1997) The amphotropic murine leukemia virus receptor gene encodes a 71-kilodalton protein that is induced by phosphate depletion. J Virol 71:4564–4570
Choe H, Farzan M, Sun Y, Sullivan N, Rollins B, Ponath PD, Wu L, Mackay CR, LaRosa G, Newman W, Gerard N, Gerard C, and Sodroski J (1996) The beta-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. Cell 85:1135–1148
Christensen HN (1989) Distinguishing amino acid transport systems of a given cell or tissue. Methods Enzymol 173:576–616
Chung M, Kizhatil K, Albritton LM, and Gaulton GN (1999) Induction of syncytia by neuropathogenic murine leukemia viruses depends on receptor density, host cell determinants, and the intrinsic fusion potential of envelope protein. J Virol 73:9377–9385
Closs EI, Albritton LM, Kim JW, and Cunningham JM (1993a) Identification of a low affinity, high capacity transporter of cationic amino acids in mouse liver. J Biol Chem 268:7538–7544
Closs EI, Lyons CR, Kelly C, and Cunningham JM (1993b) Characterization of the third member of the MCAT family of cationic amino acid transporters. Identification of a domain that determines the transport properties of the MCAT proteins. J Biol Chem 268:20796–20800
Closs EI, Rinkes IH, Bader A, Yarmush ML, and Cunningham JM (1993c) Retroviral infection and expression of cationic amino acid transporters in rodent hepatocytes. J Virol 67:2097–2102
Cloyd MW, Hartley JW, and Rowe WP (1980) Lymphomagenicity of recombinant mink cell focus-inducing murine leukemia viruses. J Exp Med 151:542–552
Coffin JM 1992. Structure and classification of retroviruses, p. 19–50. In JA Levy (ed.), The Retroviridae, vol. 1. Penum Press, New York
Connor RI, Sheridan KE, Ceradini D, Choe S, and Landau NR (1997) Change in coreceptor use correlates with disease progression in HIV-1-infected individuals. J Exp Med 185:621–628
Corbin A, Richardson J, Denesvre C, Pozo F, Ellerbrok H, and Sitbon M (1994) The envelopes of two ecotropic murine leukemia viruses display distinct efficiencies in retroviral vaccination by interference. Virology 202:70–75
Cornelissen M, Mulder-Kampinga G, Veenstra J, Zorgdrager F, Kuiken C, Hartman S, Dekker J, van der Hoek L, Sol C, Coutinho R, and et al. (1995) Syncytium-inducing (SI) phenotype suppression at seroconversion after intramuscular inoculation of a non-syncytium-inducing/SI phenotypically mixed human immunodeficiency virus population. J Virol 69:1810–1818
Cortes MJ, Wong-Staal F, and Lama J (2002) Cell surface CD4 interferes with the infectivity of HIV-1 particles released from Tcells. J Biol Chem 277:1770–1779
Damico R, and Bates P (2000) Soluble receptor-induced retroviral infection of receptor-deficient cells. J Virol 74:6469–6475
Damico RL, Crane J, and Bates P (1998) Receptor-triggered membrane association of a model retroviral glycoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:2580–2585
Danieli T, Pelletier SL, Henis YI, and White JM (1996) Membrane fusion mediated by the influenza virus hemagglutinin requires the concerted action of at least three hemagglutinin trimers. J Cell Biol 133:559–569
Davey RA, Zuo Y, and Cunningham JM (1999) Identification of a receptor-binding pocket on the envelope protein of friend murine leukemia virus. J Virol 73:3758–3763
Dean GA, Groshek PM, Mullins JI, and Hoover EA (1992) Hematopoietic target cells of anemogenic subgroup C versus nonanemogenic subgroup A feline leukemia virus. J Virol 66:5561–5568
Delassus S, Sonigo P, and Wain-Hobson S (1989) Genetic organization of gibbon ape leukemia virus. Virology 173:205–213
Delwart EL, and Panganiban AT (1989) Role of reticuloendotheliosis virus envelope glycoprotein in superinfection interference. J Virol 63:273–280
Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, Choe S, Unutmaz D, Burkhart M, Di Marzio P, Marmon S, Sutton RE, Hill CM, Davis CB, Peiper SC, Schall TJ, Littman DR, and Landau NR (1996) Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 381:661–666
Domingo E, Webster RG, and Holland JJ (eds.) 1999 Origin and Evolution of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego, California
Donahue PR, Quackenbush SL, Gallo MV, deNoronha CM, Overbaugh J, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1991) Viral genetic determinants of T-cell killing and immunodeficiency disease induction by the feline leukemia virus FeLV-FAIDS. J Virol 65:4461–4469
Doranz BJ, Baik SS, and Doms RW (1999) Use of a gp120 binding assay to dissect the requirements and kinetics of human immunodeficiency virus fusion events. J Virol 73:10346–10358
Doranz BJ, Rucker J, Yi Y, Smyth RJ, Samson M, Peiper SC, Parmentier M, Collman RG, and Doms RW (1996) A dual-tropic primary HIV-1 isolate that uses fusin and the beta-chemokine receptors CKR-5, CKR-3, and CKR-2b as fusion cofactors. Cell 85:1149–1158
Dragic T, Litwin V, Allaway GP, Martin SR, Huang Y, Nagashima KA, Cayanan C, Maddon PJ, Koup RA, Moore JP, and Paxton WA (1996) HIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5. Nature 381:667–673
Dreyer K, Pedersen FS, and Pedersen L (2000) A 13-amino-acid Pit1-specific loop 4 sequence confers feline leukemia virus subgroup B receptor function upon Pit2. J Virol 74:2926–2929
Edinger AL, Amedee A, Miller K, Doranz BJ, Endres M, Sharron M, Samson M, Lu ZH, Clements JE, Murphey-Corb M, Peiper SC, Parmentier M, Broder CC, and Doms RW (1997) Differential utilization of CCR5 by macrophage and T cell tropic simian immunodeficiency virus strains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:4005–4010
Eiden MV, Farrell K, Warsowe J, Mahan LC, and Wilson CA (1993) Characterization of a naturally occurring ecotropic receptor that does not facilitate entry of all ecotropic murine retroviruses. J Virol 67:4056–4061
Eiden MV, Farrell K, and Wilson CA (1994) Glycosylation-dependent inactivation of the ecotropic murine leukemia virus receptor. J Virol 68:626–631
Eiden MV, Farrell KB, and Wilson CA (1996) Substitution of a single amino acid residue is sufficient to allow the human amphotropic murine leukemia virus receptor to also function as a gibbon ape leukemia virus receptor. J Virol 70:1080–1085
Ellens H, Bentz J, Mason D, Zhang F, and White JM (1990) Fusion of influenza hemagglutinin-expressing fibroblasts with glycophorin-bearing liposomes: role of hemagglutinin surface density. Biochemistry 29:9697–9707
Enjoji M, Nakamuta M, Kinukawa N, Sugimoto R, Noguchi K, Tsuruta S, Iwao M, Kotoh K, Iwamoto H, and Nawata H (2000) Beta-lipoproteins influence the serum level of hepatitis C virus. Med Sci Monit 6:841–844
Farrell KB, Ting YT, and Eiden MV (2002) Fusion-defective gibbon ape leukemia virus vectors can be rescued by homologous but not heterologous soluble envelope proteins. J Virol 76:4267–4274
Fass D, Davey RA, Hamson CA, Kim PS, Cunningham JM, and Berger JM (1997) Structure of a murine leukemia virus receptor-binding glycoprotein at 2.0 angstrom resolution. Science 277:1662–1666
Feigelstock D, Thompson P, Mattoo P, and Kaplan GG (1998) Polymorphisms of the hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 in African green monkey kidney cells result in antigenic variants that do not react with protective monoclonal antibody 190/ 4. J Virol 72:6218–6222
Feng Y, Broder CC, Kennedy PE, and Berger EA (1996) HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor. Science 272:872–877
Fischinger PJ, Blevins CS, and Dunlop NM (1978) Genomic masking of nondefective recombinant murine leukemia virus in Moloney virus stocks. Science 201:457–459
Fischinger PJ, Nomura S, and Bolognesi DP (1975) A novel murine oncornavirus with dual eco-and xenotropic properties. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 72:5150–5155
Flint SJ, Enquist LW, Krug RM, Racaniello VR, and Skalka AM 2000a. Virus attachment to host cells, p. 101–131, Principles of virology: molecular biology, pathogensis and control. ASM Press, Washington D.C
Flint SJ, Enquist LW, Krug RM, Racaniello VR, and Skalka AM 2000b. Virus entry into cells, p. 133–161, Principles of virology: molecular biology, pathogensis and control. ASM Press, Washington D.C
Forestell SP, Dando JS, Bohnlein E, and Rigg RJ (1996) Improved detection of replication-competent retrovirus. J Virol Methods 60:171–178
Fortin JF, Cantin R, Lamontagne G, and Tremblay M (1997) Host-derived ICAM-1 glycoproteins incorporated on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 are biologically active and enhance viral infectivity. J Virol 71:3588–3596
Frey S, Marsh M, Gunther S, Pelchen-Matthews A, Stephens P, Ortlepp S, and Stegmann T (1995) Temperature dependence of cell-cell fusion induced by the envelope glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type I. J Virol 69:1462–1472
Gardner M, Dandekar S, and Cardiff R (1986) Molecular mechanism of an ecotropic MuLV restriction gene Akvr-1/FV-4 in California wild mice. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 127:338–345
Gautier R, Jiang A, Rousseau V, Dornburg R, and Jaffredo T (2000) Avian reticuloendotheliosis virus strain A and spleen necrosis virus do not infect human cells. J Virol 74:518–522
Geijtenbeek TB, Kwon DS, Torensma R, van Vliet SJ, van Duijnhoven GC, Middel J, Cornelissen IL, Nottet HS, KewalRamani VN, Littman DR, Figdor CG, and van Kooyk Y (2000) DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells. Cell 100:587–597
Ghosh AK, Bachmann MH, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1992) Identification of a putative receptor for subgroup A feline leukemia virus on feline T cells. J Virol 66:3707–3714
Gilbert JM, Hernandez LD, Balliet JW, Bates P, and White JM (1995) Receptor-induced conformational changes in the subgroup A avian leukosis and sarcoma virus envelope glycoprotein. J Virol 69:7410–7415
Gilbert JM, Mason D, and White JM (1990) Fusion of Rous sarcoma virus with host cells does not require exposure to low pH. J Virol 64:5106–5113
Glushakova S, Grivel JC, Fitzgerald W, Sylwester A, Zimmerberg J, and Margolis LB (1998) Evidence for the HIV-1 phenotype switch as a causal factor in acquired immunodeficiency. Nat Med 4:346–349
Golovkina TV, Dzuris J, van den Hoogen B, Jaffe AB, Wright PC, Cofer SM, and Ross SR (1998) A novel membrane protein is a mouse mammary tumor virus receptor. J Virol 72:3066–3071
Guibinga GH, Miyanohara A, Esko JD, and Friedmann T (2002) Cell surface heparan sulfate is a receptor for attachment of envelope protein-free retrovirus-like particles and VSV-G pseudotyped MLV-derived retrovirus vectors to target cells. Mol Ther 5:538–546
Gunther-Ausborn S, Schoen P, Bartoldus I, Wilschut J, and Stegmann T (2000) Role of hemagglutinin surface density in the initial stages of influenza virus fusion: lack of evidence for cooperativity. J Virol 74:2714–2720
Hartley JW, Wolford NK, Old LJ, and Rowe WP (1977) A new class of murine leukemia virus associated with development of spontaneous lymphomas. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 74:789–792
Haywood AM (1994) Virus receptors: binding, adhesion strengthening, and changes in viral structure. J Virol 68:1–5
Heard JM, and Danos O (1991) An amino-terminal fragment of the Friend murine leukemia virus envelope glycoprotein binds the ecotropic receptor. J Virol 65:4026–4032
Hernandez LD, Hoffman LR, Wolfsberg TG, and White JM (1996) Virus-cell and cellcell fusion. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 12:627–661
Herr W, and Gilbert W (1984) Free and integrated recombinant murine leukemia virus DNAs appear in preleukemic thymuses of AKR/J mice. J Virol 50:155–162
Higginbottom A, Quinn ER, Kuo CC, Flint M, Wilson LH, Bianchi E, Nicosia A, Monk PN, McKeating JA, and Levy S (2000) Identification of amino acid residues in CD81 critical for interaction with hepatitis C virus envelope glycoprotein E2. J Virol 74:3642–3649
Hill AV (1998) The immunogenetics of human infectious diseases. Annu Rev Immunol 16:593–617
Hoffman TL, Canziani G, Jia L, Rucker J, and Doms RW (2000) A biosensor assay for studying ligand-membrane receptor interactions: binding of antibodies and HIV-1 Env to chemokine receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:11215–11220
Holmen SL, Melder DC, and Federspiel MJ (2001) Identification of key residues in subgroup A avian leukosis virus envelope determining receptor binding affinity and infectivity of cells expressing chicken or quail Tva receptor. J Virol 75:726–737
Hosokawa H, Sawamura T, Kobayashi S, Ninomiya H, Miwa S, and Masaki T (1997) Cloning and characterization of a brain-specific cationic amino acid transporter. J Biol Chem 272:8717–8722
Hunter E 1997. Viral entry and receptors, p. 71–120. In JM Coffin, Hughes SH, and Varmus HE (eds), Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, New York
Hunter E, Casey J, Hahn B, Hayami M, Korber B, Kurth R, Neil JC, Rethwilm A, Sonigo P, and Stoye JP 2000. Retroviridae, p. 369–387. In MHV van Regenmortel, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Carstens EB, Estes MK, Lemon SM, Maniloff J, Mayo MA, McGeoch DJ, Pringle CR, and Wickner RB (eds), Virus Taxonomy Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, London
Hunter E, and Swanstrom R (1990) Retrovirus envelope glycoproteins. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 157:187–253
Ikeda H, and Sugimura H (1989) Fv-4 resistance gene: a truncated endogenous murine leukemia virus with ecotropic interference properties. J Virol 63:5405–5412
Innes CL, Smith PB, Langenbach R, Tindall KR, and Boone LR (1990) Cationic liposomes (Lipofectin) mediate retroviral infection in the absence of specific receptors. J Virol 64:957–961
Ito K, and Groudine M (1997) A new member of the cationic amino acid transporter family is preferentially expressed in adult mouse brain. J Biol Chem 272:26780–26786
Jin MJ, Hui H, Robertson DL, Muller MC, Barre-Sinoussi F, Hirsch VM, Allan JS, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, and Hahn BH (1994) Mosaic genome structure of simian immunodeficiency virus from west African green monkeys. EMBO J 13:2935–2947
Jinno-Oue A, Oue M, and Ruscetti SK (2001) A unique heparin-binding domain in the envelope protein of the neuropathogenic PVC-211 murine leukemia virus may contribute to its brain capillary endothelial cell tropism. J Virol 75:12439–12445
Jobbagy Z, Garfield S, Baptiste L, Eiden MV, and Anderson WB (2000) Subcellular redistribution of Pit-2 Pi transporter/amphotropic leukemia virus (A-MuLV) receptor in A-MuLV-infected NIH 3T3 fibroblasts: involvement in superinfection interference. J Virol 74:2847–2854
Johann SV, van Zeijl M, Cekleniak J, and O’Hara B (1993) Definition of a domain of GLVR1 which is necessary for infection by gibbon ape leukemia virus and which is highly polymorphic between species. J Virol 67:6733–6736
Jung A, Maier R, Vartanian JP, Bocharov G, Jung V, Fischer U, Meese E, WainHobson S, and Meyerhans A (2002) Recombination: Multiply infected spleen cells in HIV patients. Nature 418:144
Jung YT, Lyu MS, Buckler-White A, and Kozak CA (2002) Characterization of a polytropic murine leukemia virus proviral sequence associated with the virus resistance gene Rmcf of DBA/2 mice. J Virol 76:8218–8224
Kabat D (1989) Molecular biology of Friend viral erythroleukemia. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 148:1–42
Kabat D, Kozak SL, Wehrly K, and Chesebro B (1994) Differences in CD4 dependence for infectivity of laboratory-adapted and primary patient isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 68:2570–2577
Kanai Y (1997) Family of neutral and acidic amino acid transporters: molecular biology, physiology and medical implications. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9:565–572
Katen LJ, Januszeski MM, Anderson WF, Hasenkrug KJ, and Evans LH (2001) Infectious entry by amphotropic as well as ecotropic murine leukemia viruses occurs through an endocytic pathway. J Virol 75:5018–5026
Kavanaugh MP, Miller DG, Zhang W, Law W, Kozak SL, Kabat D, and Miller AD (1994a) Cell-surface receptors for gibbon ape leukemia virus and amphotropic murine retrovirus are inducible sodium-dependent phosphate symporters. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:7071–7075
Kavanaugh MP, Wang H, Boyd CAR, North RA, and Kabat D (1994b) Cell surface receptor for ecotropic host-range mouse retroviruses: A cationic amino acid transporter. Arch Virol 9:485–494
Kavanaugh MP, Wang H, Zhang Z, Zhang W, Wu YN, Dechant E, North RA, and Kabat D (1994c) Control of cationic amino acid transport and retroviral receptor functions in a membrane protein family. J Biol Chem 269:15445–15450
Kekuda R, Prasad PD, Fei YJ, Torres-Zamorano V, Sinha S, Yang-Feng TL, Leibach FH, and Ganapathy V (1996) Cloning of the sodium-dependent, broad-scope, neutral amino acid transporter Bo from a human placental choriocarcinoma cell line. J Biol Chem 271:18657–18661
Kekuda R, Torres-Zamorano V, Fei YJ, Prasad PD, Li HW, Mader LD, Leibach FH, and Ganapathy V (1997) Molecular and functional characterization of intestinal Na+-dependent neutral amino acid transporter B0. Am J Physiol 272:G1463–G1472
Keshet E, and Temin HM (1979) Cell killing by spleen necrosis virus is correlated with a transient accumulation of spleen necrosis virus DNA. J Virol 31:376–388
Kewalramani VN, Panganiban AT, and Emerman M (1992) Spleen necrosis virus, an avian immunosuppressive retrovirus, shares a receptor with the type D simian retroviruses. J Virol 66:3026–3031
Khan AS (1984) Nucleotide sequence analysis establishes the role of endogenous murine leukemia virus DNA segments in formation of recombinant mink cell focus-forming murine leukemia viruses. J Virol 50:864–871
Kielian M, and Helenius A 1986. Entry of alphaviruses. In S Schlesinger, and Schlesinger MJ (eds), The Togaviridae and Flaviviridae. Plenum
Kim JW, Closs EI, Albritton LM, and Cunningham JM (1991) Transport of cationic amino acids by the mouse ecotropic retrovirus receptor. Nature 352:725–728
Kim JW, and Cunningham JM (1993) N-linked glycosylation of the receptor for murine ecotropic retroviruses is altered in virus-infected cells. J Biol Chem 268:16316–16320
Kizhatil K, and Albritton LM (1997) Requirements for different components of the host cell cytoskeleton distinguish ecotropic murine leukemia virus entry via endocytosis from entry via surface fusion. J Virol 71:7145–7156
Koo HM, Brown AM, Ron Y, and Dougherty JP (1991) Spleen necrosis virus, an avian retrovirus, can infect primate cells. J Virol 65:4769–4776
Koo HM, Gu J, Varela-Echavarria A, Ron Y, and Dougherty JP (1992) Reticuloendotheliosis type C and primate type D oncoretroviruses are members of the same receptor interference group. J Virol, 66:3448–3454
Kozak CA (1983) Genetic mapping of a mouse chromosomal locus required for mink cell focus-forming virus replication. J Virol 48:300–303
Kozak CA (1985) Susceptibility of wild mouse cells to exogenous infection with xenotropic leukemia viruses: control by a single dominant locus on chromosome 1. J Virol 55:690–695
Kozak CA, and O’Neill RR (1987) Diverse wild mouse origins of xenotropic, mink cell focus-forming, and two types of ecotropic proviral genes. J Virol 61:3082–3088
Kozak M (1999) Initiation of translation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Gene 234:187–208
Kreisberg JF, Kwa D, Schramm B, Trautner V, Connor R, Schuitemaker H, Mullins JI, van’t Wout AB, and Goldsmith MA (2001) Cytopathicity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 primary isolates depends on coreceptor usage and not patient disease status. J Virol 75:8842–8847
Kristal BS, Reinhart TA, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1993) Interference with superinfection and with cell killing and determination of host range and growth kinetics mediated by feline leukemia virus surface glycoproteins. J Virol 67:4142–4153
Kuhmann SE, Madani N, Diop OM, Platt EJ, Morvan J, Muller-Trutwin MC, BarreSinoussi F, and Kabat D (2001) Frequent substitution polymorphisms in African green monkey CCR5 cluster at critical sites for infections by simian immunodeficiency virus SIVagm, implying ancient virus-host coevolution. J Virol 75:8449–8460
Kuhmann SE, Platt EJ, Kozak SL, and Kabat D (2000) Cooperation of multiple CCR5 coreceptors is required for infections by human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 74:7005–7015
Kwa D, Vingerhoed J, Boeser-Nunnink B, Broersen S, and Schuitemaker H (2001) Cytopathic effects of non-syncytium-inducing and syncytium-inducing human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants on different CD4(+)-T-cell subsets are determined only by coreceptor expression. J Virol 75:10455–10459
Lama J, Mangasarian A, and Trono D (1999) Cell-surface expression of CD4 reduces HIV-1 infectivity by blocking Env incorporation in a Nef-and Vpu-inhibitable manner. Curr Biol 9:622–631
Lauring AS, Anderson MM, and Overbaugh J (2001) Specificity in receptor usage by T-cell-tropic feline leukemia viruses: implications for the in vivo tropism of immunodeficiency-inducing variants. J Virol 75:8888–8898
Lauring AS, Cheng HH, Eiden MV, and Overbaugh J (2002) Genetic and biochemical analyses of receptor and cofactor determinants for T-cell-tropic feline leukemia virus infection. J Virol 76:8069–8078
Lavillette D, Boson B, Russell SJ, and Cosset FL (2001) Activation of membrane fusion by murine leukemia viruses is controlled in cis or in trans by interactions between the receptor-binding domain and a conserved disulfide loop of the carboxy terminus of the surface glycoprotein. J Virol 75:3685–3695
Lavillette D, Marin M, Ruggieri A, Mallet F, Cosset FL, and Kabat D (2002a) The envelope glycoprotein of human endogenous retrovirus type W uses a divergent family of amino acid transporters/cell surface receptors. J Virol 76:6442–6452
Lavillette D, Ruggieri A, Boson B, Maurice M, and Cosset FL (2002b) Relationship between SU subdomains that regulate the receptor-mediated transition from the native (fusion-Inhibited) to the fusion-active conformation of the murine leukemia virus glycoprotein. J Virol 76:9673–9685
Lavillette D, Ruggieri A, Russell SJ, and Cosset FL (2000) Activation of a cell entry pathway common to type C mammalian retroviruses by soluble envelope fragments. J Virol 74:295–304
Layne SP, Merges MJ, Dembo M, Spouge JL, and Nara PL (1990) HIV requires multiple gp120 molecules for CD4-mediated infection. Nature 346:277–279
Lee B, Leslie G, Soilleux E, O’Doherty U, Baik S, Levroney E, Flummerfelt K, Swiggard W, Coleman N, Malim M, and Doms RW (2001) cis Expression of DC-SIGN allows for more efficient entry of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses via CD4 and a coreceptor. J Virol 75:12028–12038
Lee B, Sharron M, Montaner LJ, Weissman D, and Doms RW (1999) Quantification of CD4, CCR5, and CXCR4 levels on lymphocyte subsets, dendritic cells, and differentially conditioned monocyte-derived macrophages. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:5215–5220
Lee EJ, Kaminchik J, and Hankins WD (1984) Expression of xenotropic-like env RNA sequences in normal DBA/2 and NZB mouse tissues. J Virol 51:247–250
Leverett BD, Farrell KB, Eiden MV, and Wilson CA (1998) Entry of amphotropic murine leukemia virus is influenced by residues in the putative second extracellular domain of its receptor, Pit2. J Virol 72:4956–4961
Levy JA (1978) Xenotropic type C viruses. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 79:111–213
Levy JA (1973) Xenotropic viruses: murine leukemia viruses associated with NIH swiss, NZB, and other mouse strains. Science 182:1151–1153
Li F, Erickson HP, James JA, Moore KL, Cummings RD, and McEver RP (1996a) Visualization of P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 as a highly extended molecule and mapping of protein epitopes for monoclonal antibodies. J Biol Chem 271:6342–6348
Li F, Wilkins PP, Crawley S, Weinstein J, Cummings RD, and McEver RP (1996b) Post-translational modifications of recombinant P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 required for binding to P-and E-selectin. J Biol Chem 271:3255–3264
Li YY, O’Donnell MA, and Perez LG (1996c) Coexpression of a nonsyncytium inducer HIV-1 glycoprotein inhibits syncytium formation by another HIV-1 Env protein. Virology 215:197–202
Lin CL, Sewell AK, Gao GF, Whelan KT, Phillips RE, and Austyn JM (2000) Macrophage-tropic HIV induces and exploits dendritic cell chemotaxis. J Exp Med 192:587–594
Linenberger ML, and Abkowitz JL (1995) Haematological disorders associated with feline retrovirus infections. Baillieres Clin Haematol 8:73–112
Linenberger ML, and Abkowitz JL (1992) In vivo infection of marrow stromal fibroblasts by feline leukemia virus. Exp Hematol 20:1022–1027
Linenberger ML, and Abkowitz JL (1992) Studies in feline long-term marrow culture: hematopoiesis on normal and feline leukemia virus infected stromal cells. Blood 80:651–662
Littman DR (1998) Chemokine receptors: keys to AIDS pathogenesis? Cell 93:677–680
Liu R, Paxton WA, Choe S, Ceradini D, Martin SR, Horuk R, MacDonald ME, Stuhlmann H, Koup RA, and Landau NR (1996) Homozygous defect in HIV-1 coreceptor accounts for resistance of some multiply-exposed individuals to HIV-1 infection. Cell 86:367–377
Lu Z, Berson JF, Chen Y, Turner JD, Zhang T, Sharron M, Jenks MH, Wang Z, Kim J, Rucker J, Hoxie JA, Peiper SC, and Doms RW (1997) Evolution of HIV-1 coreceptor usage through interactions with distinct CCR5 and CXCR4 domains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:6426–6431
Lundorf MD, Pedersen FS, O’Hara B, and Pedersen L (1999) Amphotropic murine leukemia virus entry is determined by specific combinations of residues from receptor loops 2 and 4. J Virol 73:3169–3175
Lundorf MD, Pedersen FS, O’Hara B, and Pedersen L (1998) Single amino acid insertion in loop 4 confers amphotropic murine leukemia virus receptor function upon murine Pit1. J Virol 72:4524–4527
Lynch WP, Brown WJ, Spangrude GJ, and Portis JL (1994) Microglial infection by a neurovirulent murine retrovirus results in defective processing of envelope protein and intracellular budding of virus particles. J Virol 68:3401–3409
Lyu MS, and Kozak CA (1996) Genetic basis for resistance to polytropic murine leukemia viruses in the wild mouse species Mus castaneus. J Virol 70:830–833
Lyu MS, Nihrane A, and Kozak CA (1999) Receptor-mediated interference mechanism responsible for resistance to polytropic leukemia viruses in Mus castaneus. J Virol 73:3733–3736
Mang R, Goudsmit J, and van der Kuyl AC (1999) Novel endogenous type C retrovirus in baboons: complete sequence, providing evidence for baboon endogenous virus gag-pol ancestry. J Virol 73:7021–7026
Marechal V, Prevost MC, Petit C, Perret E, Heard JM, and Schwartz O (2001) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry into macrophages mediated by macropinocytosis. J Virol 75:11166–11177
Marin M, Lavillette D, Kelly SM, and Kabat D (2003) N-linked glycosylation and sequence changes in a critical negative control region of the ASCT1 and ASCT2 neutral amino acid transporters determines their retroviral receptor functions. J Virol. In press
Marin M, Tailor CS, Nouri A, and Kabat D (2000) Sodium-dependent neutral amino acid transporter type 1 is an auxiliary receptor for baboon endogenous retrovirus. J Virol 74:8085–8093
Marin M, Tailor CS, Nouri A, Kozak SL, and Kabat D (1999) Polymorphisms of the cell surface receptor control mouse susceptibilities to xenotropic and polytropic leukemia viruses. J Virol 73:9362–9368
Martin J, Herniou E, Cook J, O’Neill RW, and Tristem M (1999) Interclass transmission and phyletic host tracking in murine leukemia virus-related retroviruses. J Virol 73:2442–2449
Mason PW, Rieder E, and Baxt B (1994) RGD sequence of foot-and-mouth disease virus is essential for infecting cells via the natural receptor but can be bypassed by an antibody-dependent enhancement pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:1932–1936
Masuda M, Hanson CA, Alvord WG, Hoffman PM, and Ruscetti SK (1996a) Effects of subtle changes in the SU protein of ecotropic murine leukemia virus on its brain capillary endothelial cell tropism and interference properties. Virology 215:142–151
Masuda M, Hanson CA, Hoffman PM, and Ruscetti SK (1996b) Analysis of the unique hamster cell tropism of ecotropic murine leukemia virus PVC-211. J Virol 70:8534–8539
Masuda M, Kakushima N, Wilt SG, Ruscetti SK, Hoffman PM, and Iwamoto A (1999) Analysis of receptor usage by ecotropic murine retroviruses, using green fluorescent protein-tagged cationic amino acid transporters. J Virol 73:8623–8629
Masuda M, Remington MP, Hoffman PM, and Ruscetti SK (1992) Molecular characterization of a neuropathogenic and nonerythroleukemogenic variant of Friend murine leukemia virus PVC-211. J Virol 66:2798–2806
McClure MO, Sommerfelt MA, Marsh M, and Weiss RA (1990) The pH independence of mammalian retrovirus infection. J Gen Virol 71:767–773
McEver RP, Moore KL, and Cummings RD (1995) Leukocyte trafficking mediated by selectin-carbohydrate interactions. J Biol Chem 270:11025–11028
Meola A, Sbardellati A, Bruni Ercole B, Cerretani M, Pezzanera M, Ceccacci A, Vitelli A, Levy S, Nicosia A, Traboni C, McKeating J, and Scarselli E (2000) Binding of hepatitis C virus E2 glycoprotein to CD81 does not correlate with species permissiveness to infection. J Virol 74:5933–5938
Miller AD, Bonham L, Alfano J, Kiem HP, Reynolds T, and Wolgamot G (1996) A novel murine retrovirus identified during testing for helper virus in human gene transfer trials. J Virol 70:1804–1809
Miller DA, and Wolgamot G (1997) Murine retroviruses use at least six different receptors for entry in Mus dunni cells. J Virol 71:4531–4535
Miller DG, Edwards RH, and Miller AD (1994) Cloning of the cellular receptor for amphotropic murine retroviruses reveals homology to that for gibbon ape leukemia virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:78–82
Miller DG, and Miller AD (1994) A family of retroviruses that utilize related phosphate transporters for cell entry. J Virol 68:8270–8276
Miller DG, and Miller AD (1993) Inhibitors of retrovirus infection are secreted by several hamster cell lines and are also present in hamster sera. J Virol 67:5346–5352
Miller DG, and Miller AD (1992) Tunicamycin treatment of CHO cells abrogates multiple blocks to retrovirus infection, one of which is due to a secreted inhibitor. J Virol 66:78–84
Mondor I, Moulard M, Ugolini S, Klasse PJ, Hoxie J, Amara A, Delaunay T, Wyatt R, Sodroski J, and Sattentau QJ (1998) Interactions among HIV gp120, CD4, and CXCR4: dependence on CD4 expression level, gp120 viral origin, conservation of the gp120 COOH-and NH2-termini and V1/V2 and V3 loops, and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies. Virology 248:394–405
Mondor I, Ugolini S, and Sattentau QJ (1998) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 attachment to HeLa CD4 cells is CD4 independent and gp120 dependent and requires cell surface heparans. J Virol 72:3623–3634
Moore JP, Trkola A, and Dragic T (1997) Co-receptors for HIV-1 entry. Curr Opin Immunol 9:551–562
Moser M, Burns CC, Boomer S, and Overbaugh J (1998) The host range and interference properties of two closely related feline leukemia variants suggest that they use distinct receptors. Virology 242:366–377
Mothes W, Boerger AL, Narayan S, Cunningham JM, and Young JA (2000) Retroviral entry mediated by receptor priming and low pH triggering of an envelope glycoprotein. Cell 103:679–689
Murakami T, and Freed EO (2000) The long cytoplasmic tail of gp41 is required in a cell type-dependent manner for HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein incorporation into virions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:343–348
Murphy PM (1993) Molecular mimicry and the generation of host defense protein diversity. Cell 72:823–826
Neil JC, Fulton R, Rigby M, and Stewart M (1991) Feline leukaemia virus: generation of pathogenic and oncogenic variants. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 171:67–93
Nicholson B, Sawamura T, Masaki T, and MacLeod CL (1998) Increased Cat3-mediated cationic amino acid transport functionally compensates in Cat1 knockout cell lines. J Biol Chem 273:14663–14666
O’Doherty U, Swiggard WJ, and Malim MH (2000) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 spinoculation enhances infection through virus binding. J Virol 74:10074–10080
O’Hara B, Johann SV, Klinger HP, Blair DG, Rubinson H, Dunn KJ, Sass P, Vitek SM, and Robins T (1990) Characterization of a human gene conferring sensitivity to infection by gibbon ape leukemia virus. Cell Growth Differ 1:119–127
O’Neill RR, Khan AS, Hoggan MD, Hartley JW, Martin MA, and Repaske R (1986) Specific hybridization probes demonstrate fewer xenotropic than mink cell focusforming murine leukemia virus env-related sequences in DNAs from inbred laboratory mice. J Virol 58:359–366
Olah Z, Lehel C, Anderson WB, Eiden MV, and Wilson CA (1994) The cellular receptor for gibbon ape leukemia virus is a novel high affinity sodium-dependent phosphate transporter. J Biol Chem 269:25426–25431
Oldstone MB, Lewicki H, Thomas D, Tishon A, Dales S, Patterson J, Manchester M, Homann D, Naniche D, and Holz A (1999) Measles virus infection in a transgenic model: virus-induced immunosuppression and central nervous system disease. Cell 98:629–640
Onions D, Jarrett O, Testa N, Frassoni F, and Toth S (1982) Selective effect of feline leukaemia virus on early erythroid precursors. Nature 296:156–158
Ott D, Friedrich R, and Rein A (1990) Sequence analysis of amphotropic and 10A1 murine leukemia viruses: close relationship to mink cell focus-inducing viruses. J Virol 64:757–766
Overbaugh J, Donahue PR, Quackenbush SL, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1988) Molecular cloning of a feline leukemia virus that induces fatal immunodeficiency disease in cats. Science 239:906–910
Overbaugh J, Miller AD, and Eiden MV (2001) Receptors and entry cofactors for retroviruses include single and multiple transmembrane-spanning proteins as well as newly described glycophosphatidylinositol-anchored and secreted proteins. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 65:371–389
Overbaugh J, Riedel N, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1988) Transduction of endogenous envelope genes by feline leukaemia virus in vitro. Nature 332:731–734
Palsson B, and Andreadis S (1997) The physico-chemical factors that govern retrovirus-mediated gene transfer. Exp Hematol 25:94–102
Pao SS, Paulsen IT, and Saier MH, Jr. (1998) Major facilitator superfamily. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 62:1–34
Park BH, Matuschke B, Lavi E, and Gaulton GN (1994) A point mutation in the env gene of a murine leukemia virus induces syncytium formation and neurologic disease. J Virol 68:7516–7524
Park PW, Reizes O, and Bernfield M (2000) Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans: selective regulators of ligand-receptor encounters. J Biol Chem 275:29923–29926
Parker JS, Murphy WJ, Wang D, O’Brien SJ, and Parrish CR (2001) Canine and feline parvoviruses can use human or feline transferrin receptors to bind, enter, and infect cells. J Virol 75:3896–3902
Patience C, Switzer WM, Takeuchi Y, Griffiths DJ, Goward ME, Heneine W, Stoye JP, and Weiss RA (2001) Multiple groups of novel retroviral genomes in pigs and related species. J Virol 75:2771–2775
Pavlicek A, Paces J, Elleder D, and Hejnar J (2002) Processed pseudogenes of human endogenous retroviruses generated by LINEs: their integration, stability, and distribution. Genome Res 12:391–399. 2002
Pedersen L, Johann SV, van Zeijl M, Pedersen FS, and O’Hara B (1995) Chimeras of receptors for gibbon ape leukemia virus/feline leukemia virus B and amphotropic murine leukemia virus reveal different modes of receptor recognition by retrovirus. J Virol 69:2401–2405
Penn DJ, Damjanovich K, and Potts WK (2002) MHC heterozygosity confers a selective advantage against multiple-strain infections. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 11260–11264
Petracca R, Falugi F, Galli G, Norais N, Rosa D, Campagnoli S, Burgio V, Di Stasio E, Giardina B, Houghton M, Abrignani S, and Grandi G (2000) Structure-function analysis of hepatitis C virus envelope-CD81 binding. J Virol 74:4824–4830
Picard L, Simmons G, Power CA, Meyer A, Weiss RA, and Clapham PR (1997) Multiple extracellular domains of CCR-5 contribute to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry and fusion. J Virol 71:5003–5011
Piguet V, Chen YL, Mangasarian A, Foti M, Carpentier JL, and Trono D (1998) Mechanism of Nef-induced CD4 endocytosis: Nef connects CD4 with the mu chain of adaptor complexes. EMBO J 17:2472–2481
Piguet V, Schwartz O, Le Gall S, and Trono D (1999) The downregulation of CD4 and MHC-I by primate lentiviruses: a paradigm for the modulation of cell surface receptors. Immunol Rev 168:51–63
Pileri P, Uematsu Y, Campagnoli S, Galli G, Falugi F, Petracca R, Weiner AJ, Houghton M, Rosa D, Grandi G, and Abrignani S (1998) Binding of hepatitis C virus to CD81. Science 282:938–941
Pizzato M, Blair ED, Fling M, Kopf J, Tomassetti A, Weiss RA, and Takeuchi Y (2001) Evidence for nonspecific adsorption of targeted retrovirus vector particles to cells. Gene Ther 8:1088–1096
Pizzato M, Marlow SA, Blair ED, and Takeuchi Y (1999) Initial binding of murine leukemia virus particles to cells does not require specific Env-receptor interaction. J Virol 73:8599–8611
Platt EJ, Kuhmann SE, Rose PP, and Kabat D (2001) Adaptive mutations in the V3 loop of gp120 enhance fusogenicity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and enable use of a CCR5 coreceptor that lacks the amino-terminal sulfated region. J Virol 75:12266–12278
Platt EJ, Wehrly K, Kuhmann SE, Chesebro B, and Kabat D (1998) Effects of CCR5 and CD4 cell surface concentrations on infections by macrophagetropic isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 72:2855–2864
Pohlmann S, Baribaud F, Lee B, Leslie GJ, Sanchez MD, Hiebenthal-Millow K, Munch J, Kirchhoff F, and Doms RW (2001a) DC-sign interactions with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 and simian immunodeficiency virus. J Virol 75:4664–4672
Pöhlmann S, Soilleux EJ, Baribaud F, Leslie GJ, Morris LS, Trowsdale J, Lee B, Coleman N, and Doms RW (2001b) DC-SIGNR, a DC-SIGN homologue expressed in endothelial cells, binds to human and simian immunodeficiency viruses and activates infection in trans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:2670–2675
Pollakis G, Kang S, Kliphuis A, Chalaby MI, Goudsmit J, and Paxton WA (2001) N-linked glycosylation of the HIV-1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein as a major determinant of CCR5 and CXCR4 Co-receptor utilization. J Biol Chem 16:16
Polzer S, Dittmar MT, Schmitz H, Meyer B, Muller H, Krausslich HG, and Schreiber M (2001) Loss of N-linked glycans in the V3-loop region of gp120 is correlated to an enhanced infectivity of HIV-1. Glycobiology 11:11–19
Pontow S, and Ratner L (2001) Evidence for common structural determinants of human Immunodeficiency virus type 1 coreceptor activity provided through functional analysis of CCR5/CXCR4 chimeric coreceptors. J Virol 75:11503–11514
Portis JL, McAtee FJ, and Evans LH (1985) Infectious entry of murine retroviruses into mouse cells: evidence of a postadsorption step inhibited by acidic pH. J Virol 55:806–812
Prassolov V, Hein S, Ziegler M, Ivanov D, Munk C, Lohler J, and Stocking C (2001) Mus cervicolor murine leukemia virus isolate M813 belongs to a unique receptor interference group. J Virol 75:4490–4498
Quigley JG, Burns CC, Anderson MM, Lynch ED, Sabo KM, Overbaugh J, and Abkowitz JL (2000) Cloning of the cellular receptor for feline leukemia virus subgroup C (FeLV-C), a retrovirus that induces red cell aplasia [published erratum appears in Blood 2000 Jul 1;96(1):8]. Blood 95:1093–1099
Ragheb JA, and Anderson WF (1994) pH-independent murine leukemia virus ecotropic envelope-mediated cell fusion: implications for the role of the R peptide and p12E TM in viral entry. J Virol 68:3220–3231
Rai SK, Duh FM, Vigdorovich V, Danilkovitch-Miagkova A, Lerman MI, and Miller AD (2001) Candidate tumor suppressor HYAL2 is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored cell-surface receptor for jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus, the envelope protein of which mediates oncogenic transformation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:4443–4448
Rasko JE, Battini JL, Gottschalk RJ, Mazo I, and Miller AD (1999) The RD114/simian type D retrovirus receptor is a neutral amino acid transporter. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:2129–2134
Redmond S, Peters G, and Dickson C (1984) Mouse mammary tumor virus can mediate cell fusion at reduced pH. Virology 133:393–402
Rein A, and Schultz A (1984) Different recombinant murine leukemia viruses use different cell surface receptors. Virology 136:144–152
Rein A, Yang C, Haynes JA, Mirro J, and Compans RW (1998) Evidence for cooperation between murine leukemia virus Env molecules in mixed oligomers. J Virol 72:3432–3435
Reinhart TA, Ghosh AK, Hoover EA, and Mullins JI (1993) Distinct superinfection interference properties yet similar receptor utilization by cytopathic and noncytopathic feline leukemia viruses. J Virol 67:5153–5162
Rigby MA, Rojko JL, Stewart MA, Kociba GJ, Cheney CM, Rezanka LJ, Mathes LE, Hartke JR, Jarrett O, and Neil JC (1992) Partial dissociation of subgroup C phenotype and in vivo behaviour in feline leukaemia viruses with chimeric envelope genes. J Gen Virol 73:2839–2847
Robertson DL, Sharp PM, McCutchan FE, and Hahn BH (1995) Recombination in HIV-1. Nature 374:124–126
Roche S, and Gaudin Y (2002) Characterization of the equilibrium between the native and fusion-inactive conformation of rabies virus glycoprotein indicates that the fusion complex is made of several trimers. Virology 297:128–135
Rogers GN, Daniels RS, Skehel JJ, Wiley DC, Wang XF, Higa HH, and Paulson JC (1985) Host-mediated selection of influenza virus receptor variants. Sialic acid-alpha 2,6Gal-specific clones of A/duck/Ukraine/1/63 revert to sialic acid-alpha 2,3Gal-specific wild type in ovo. J Biol Chem 260:7362–7367
Rohn JL, Moser MS, Gwynn SR, Baldwin DN, and Overbaugh J (1998) In vivo evolution of a novel, syncytium-inducing and cytopathic feline leukemia virus variant. J Virol 72:2686–2696
Rojko JL, Cheney CM, Gasper PW, Hamilton KL, Hoover EA, Mathes LE, and Kociba GJ (1986) Infectious feline leukaemia virus is erythrosuppressive in vitro. Leuk Res 10:1193–1199
Rojko JL, Hartke JR, Cheney CM, Phipps AJ, and Neil JC (1996) Cytopathic feline leukemia viruses cause apoptosis in hemolymphatic cells. Prog Mol Subcell Biol 16:13–43
Rosenberg N, and Jolicoeur P 1997. Retroviral pathogenesis, p. 71–120. In JM Coffin, Hughes SH, and Varmus HE (eds), Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, New York
Ross SR, Schofield JJ, Farr CJ, and Bucan M (2002) Mouse transferrin receptor 1 is the cell entry receptor for mouse mammary tumor virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:12386–12390
Ross TM, Oran AE, and Cullen BR (1999) Inhibition of HIV-1 progeny virion release by cell-surface CD4 is relieved by expression of the viral Nef protein. Curr Biol 9:613–621
Roy-Burman P (1995) Endogenous env elements: partners in generation of pathogenic feline leukemia viruses. Virus Genes 11:147–161
Ruscetti S, Davis L, Feild J, and Oliff A (1981) Friend murine leukemia virus-induced leukemia is associated with the formation of mink cell focus-inducing viruses and is blocked in mice expressing endogenous mink cell focus-inducing xenotropic viral envelope genes. J Exp Med 154:907–920
Ruscetti S, Matthai R, and Potter M (1985) Susceptibility of BALB/c mice carrying various DBA/2 genes to development of Friend murine leukemia virus-induced erythroleukemia. J Exp Med 162:1579–1587
Saha K, and Wong PK (1992) ts1, a temperature-sensitive mutant of Moloney murine leukemia virus TB, can infect both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells but requires CD4+ T cells in order to cause paralysis and immunodeficiency. J Virol 66:2639–2646
Salaün C, Gyan E, Rodrigues P, and Heard JM (2002) Pit2 assemblies at the cell surface are modulated by extracellular inorganic phosphate concentration. J Virol 76:4304–4311
Salaun C, Rodrigues P, and Heard JM (2001) Transmembrane topology of pit-2, a phosphate transporter-retrovirus receptor. J Virol 75:5584–5592
Salzwedel K, and Berger EA (2000) Cooperative subunit interactions within the oligomeric envelope glycoprotein of HIV-1: functional complementation of specific defects in gp120 and gp41. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:12794–12799
Saphire AC, Bobardt MD, and Gallay PA (1999) Host cyclophilin A mediates HIV-1 attachment to target cells via heparans. EMBO J 18:6771–6785
Saphire AC, Bobardt MD, Zhang Z, David G, and Gallay PA (2001) Syndecans serve as attachment receptors for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 on macrophages. J Virol 75:9187–9200
Scarlatti G, Tresoldi E, Bjorndal A, Fredriksson R, Colognesi C, Deng HK, Malnati MS, Plebani A, Siccardi AG, Littman DR, Fenyo EM, and Lusso P (1997) In vivo evolution of HIV-1 co-receptor usage and sensitivity to chemokine-mediated suppression. Nat Med 3:1259–1265
Schlessinger J, Lax I, and Lemmon M (1995) Regulation of growth factor activation by proteoglycans: what is the role of the low affinity receptors? Cell 83:357–360
Schneiderman RD, Farrell KB, Wilson CA, and Eiden MV (1996) The Japanese feral mouse Pit1 and Pit2 homologs lack an acidic residue at position 550 but still function as gibbon ape leukemia virus receptors: implications for virus binding motif. J Virol 70:6982–6986
Schramm B, Penn ML, Speck RF, Chan SY, De Clercq E, Schols D, Connor RI, and Goldsmith MA (2000) Viral entry through CXCR4 is a pathogenic factor and therapeutic target in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease. J Virol 74:184–192
Schubert U, Anton LC, Bacik I, Cox JH, Bour S, Bennink JR, Orlowski M, Strebel K, and Yewdell JW (1998) CD4 glycoprotein degradation induced by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein requires the function of proteasomes and the ubiquitin-conjugating pathway. J Virol 72:2280–2288
Schwartz M (1976) The adsorption of coliphage lambda to its host: effect of variations in the surface density of receptor and in phage-receptor affinity. J Mol Biol 103:521–536
Schwartz M (1975) Reversible interaction between coliphage lambda and its receptor protein. J Mol Biol 99:185–201
Seal RP, Leighton BH, and Amara SG (2000) A model for the topology of excitatory amino acid transporters determined by the extracellular accessibility of substituted cysteines. Neuron 25:695–706
Sharma S, Miyanohara A, and Friedmann T (2000) Separable mechanisms of attachment and cell uptake during retrovirus infection. J Virol 74:10790–10795
Sharma S, Murai F, Miyanohara A, and Friedmann T (1997) Noninfectious virus-like particles produced by Moloney murine leukemia virus-based retrovirus packaging cells deficient in viral envelope become infectious in the presence of lipofection reagents. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:10803–10808
Sheets RL, Pandey R, Jen WC, and Roy-Burman P (1993) Recombinant feline leukemia virus genes detected in naturally occurring feline lymphosarcomas. J Virol 67:3118–3125
Sheets RL, Pandey R, Klement V, Grant CK, and Roy-Burman P (1992) Biologically selected recombinants between feline leukemia virus (FeLV) subgroup A and an endogenous FeLV element. Virology 190:849–855
Shikova E, Lin YC, Saha K, Brooks BR, and Wong PK (1993) Correlation of specific virus-astrocyte interactions and cytopathic effects induced by ts1, a neurovirulent mutant of Moloney murine leukemia virus. J Virol 67:1137–1147
Siciliano SJ, Kuhmann SE, Weng Y, Madani N, Springer MS, Lineberger JE, Danzeisen R, Miller MD, Kavanaugh MP, DeMartino JA, and Kabat D (1999) A critical site in the core of the CCR5 chemokine receptor required for binding and infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Biol Chem 274:1905–1913
Siess DC, Kozak SL, and Kabat D (1996) Exceptional fusogenicity of Chinese hamster ovary cells with murine retroviruses suggests roles for cellular factor(s) and receptor clusters in the membrane fusion process. J Virol 70:3432–3439
Skehel JJ, Bizebard T, Bullough PA, Hughson FM, Knossow M, Steinhauer DA, Wharton SA, and Wiley DC 1995. Membrane fusion by influenza hemagglutinin, p. 573–580, Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 55. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
Skehel JJ, and Wiley DC (2000) Receptor binding and membrane fusion in virus entry: the influenza hemagglutinin. Annu Rev Biochem 69:531–569
Slotboom DJ, Konings WN, and Lolkema JS (1999) Structural features of the glutamate transporter family. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 63:293–307
Sommerfelt MA (1999) Retrovirus receptors. J Gen Virol 80:3049–3064
Sommerfelt MA, and Weiss RA (1990) Receptor interference groups of 20 retroviruses plating on human cells. Virology 176:58–69
Speck RF, Wehrly K, Platt EJ, Atchison RE, Charo IF, Kabat D, Chesebro B, and Goldsmith MA (1997) Selective employment of chemokine receptors as human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coreceptors determined by individual amino acids within the envelope V3 loop. J Virol 71:7136–7139
Stewart MA, Warnock M, Wheeler A, Wilkie N, Mullins JI, Onions DE, and Neil JC (1986) Nucleotide sequences of a feline leukemia virus subgroup A envelope gene and long terminal repeat and evidence for the recombinational origin of subgroup B viruses. J Virol 58:825–834
Stoye JP, Moroni C, and Coffin JM (1991) Virological events leading to spontaneous AKR thymomas. J Virol 65:1273–1285
Sugai J, Eiden M, Anderson MM, Van Hoeven N, Meiering CD, and Overbaugh J (2001) Identification of envelope determinants of feline leukemia virus subgroup B that permit infection and gene transfer to cells expressing human Pit1 or Pit2. J Virol 75:6841–6849
Suzuki Y, Ito T, Suzuki T, Holland RE, Jr., Chambers TM, Kiso M, Ishida H, and Kawaoka Y (2000) Sialic acid species as a determinant of the host range of influenza A viruses [In Process Citation]. J Virol 74:11825–11831
Suzuki Y, Kato H, Naeve CW, and Webster RG (1989) Single-amino-acid substitution in an antigenic site of influenza virus hemagglutinin can alter the specificity of binding to cell membrane-associated gangliosides. J Virol 63:4298–4302
Tailor CS, and Kabat D (1997) Variable regions A and B in the envelope glycoproteins of feline leukemia virus subgroup B and amphotropic murine leukemia virus interact with discrete receptor domains. J Virol 71:9383–9391
Tailor CS, Marin M, Nouri A, Kavanaugh MP, and Kabat D (2001) Truncated forms of the dual function human ASCT2 neutral amino acid transporter/retroviral receptor are translationally initiated at multiple alternative CUG and GUG codons. J Biol Chem 276:27221–27230
Tailor CS, Nouri A, and Kabat D (2000a) Cellular and species resistances to murine amphotropic, Gibbon ape, and feline subgroup C leukemia viruses are strongly influenced by receptor expression levels and by receptor masking mechanisms. J Virol 74:9797–9801
Tailor CS, Nouri A, and Kabat D (2000b) A comprehensive approach to mapping the interacting surfaces of murine amphotropic and feline subgroup B leukemia viruses with their cell surface receptors. J Virol 74:237–244
Tailor CS, Nouri A, Lee CG, Kozak C, and Kabat D (1999a) Cloning and characterization of a cell surface receptor for xenotropic and polytropic murine leukemia viruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:927–932
Tailor CS, Nouri A, Zhao Y, Takeuchi Y, and Kabat D (1999b) A sodium-dependent neutral-amino-acid transporter mediates infections of feline and baboon endogenous retroviruses and simian type D retroviruses. J Virol 73:4470–4474
Tailor CS, Takeuchi Y, O’Hara B, Johann SV, Weiss RA, and Collins MK (1993) Mutation of amino acids within the gibbon ape leukemia virus (GALV) receptor differentially affects feline leukemia virus subgroup B, simian sarcoma-associated virus, and GALV infections. J Virol 67:6737–6741
Tailor CS, Willett BJ, and Kabat D (1999c) A putative cell surface receptor for anemia-inducing feline leukemia virus subgroup C is a member of a transporter superfamily. J Virol 73:6500–6505
Takase-Yoden S, and Watanabe R (1999) Contribution of virus-receptor interaction to distinct viral proliferation of neuropathogenic and nonneuropathogenic murine leukemia viruses in rat glial cells. J Virol 73:4461–4464
Takeuchi Y, Patience C, Magre S, Weiss RA, Banerjee PT, Le Tissier P, and Stoye JP (1998) Host range and interference studies of three classes of pig endogenous retrovirus. J Virol 72:9986–9991
Takeuchi Y, Vile RG, Simpson G, O’Hara B, Collins MK, and Weiss RA (1992) Feline leukemia virus subgroup B uses the same cell surface receptor as gibbon ape leukemia virus. J Virol 66:1219–1222
Taplitz RA, and Coffin JM (1997) Selection of an avian retrovirus mutant with extended receptor usage. J Virol 71:7814–7819
Tatsuo H, Ono N, Tanaka K, and Yanagi Y (2000) SLAM (CDw150) is a cellular receptor for measles virus. Nature 406:893–897
Taylor GM, Gao Y, and Sanders DA (2001) Fv-4: identification of the defect in env and the mechanism of resistance to ecotropic murine leukemia virus. J Virol 75:11244–11248
Temin HM (1988) Mechanisms of cell killing/cytopathic effects by nonhuman retroviruses. Rev Infect Dis 10:399–405
Testa NG, Onions D, Jarrett O, Frassoni F, and Eliason JF (1983) Haemopoietic colony formation (BFU-E, GM-CFC) during the development of pure red cell hypoplasia induced in the cat by feline leukaemia virus. Leuk Res 7:103–116
Thoulouze MI, Lafage M, Schachner M, Hartmann U, Cremer H, and Lafon M (1998) The neural cell adhesion molecule is a receptor for rabies virus. J Virol 72:7181–7190
Tinoco I, Sauer K, and Wang JC 1978. Transition-state theory, p. 294–298, Physical chemistry: Principles and applications in biological sciences. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs
Tomonaga K, and Coffin JM (1998) Structure and distribution of endogenous nonecotropic murine leukemia viruses in wild mice. J Virol 72:8289–8300
Torres-Zamorano V, Leibach FH, and Ganapathy V (1998) Sodium-dependent homoand hetero-exchange of neutral amino acids mediated by the amino acid transporter ATB degree. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 245:824–829
Ugolini S, Mondor I, and Sattentau QJ (1999) HIV-1 attachment: another look. Trends Microbiol 7:144–149
Unutmaz D, and Littman DR (1997) Expression pattern of HIV-1 coreceptors on T cells: implications for viral transmission and lymphocyte homing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94:1615–1618
Utsunomiya-Tate N, Endou H, and Kanai Y (1996) Cloning and functional characterization of a system ASC-like Na+-dependent neutral amino acid transporter. J Biol Chem 271:14883–14890
Valentine RC, and Allison AC (1959) Virus particle adsorption. I. Theory of adsorption and experiments on attachment of particles to non-biological surfaces. Biochim Biophys Acta 34:10–23
Valsesia-Wittmann S, Morling FJ, Hatziioannou T, Russell SJ, and Cosset FL (1997) Receptor co-operation in retrovirus entry: recruitment of an auxiliary entry mechanism after retargeted binding. EMBO J 16:1214–1223
Van der Kuyl AC, Dekker JT, and Goudsmit J (1999) Discovery of a new endogenous type C retrovirus (FcEV) in cats: evidence for RD-114 being an FcEV(Gag-Pol)/ baboon endogenous virus BaEV(Env) recombinant. J Virol 73:7994–8002
Van der Kuyl AC, Mang R, Dekker JT, and Goudsmit J (1997) Complete nucleotide sequence of simian endogenous type D retrovirus with intact genome organization: evidence for ancestry to simian retrovirus and baboon endogenous virus. J Virol 71:3666–3676
Vogt PK 1997. Historical introduction to the general properties of retroviruses, p. 1–26. In JM Coffin, Hughes SH, and Varmus HE (eds), Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York
Wahlberg JM, Bron R, Wilschut J, and Garoff H (1992) Membrane fusion of Semliki Forest virus involves homotrimers of the fusion protein. J Virol 66:7309–7318
Wang H, Dechant E, Kavanaugh M, North RA, and Kabat D (1992) Effects of ecotropic murine retroviruses on the dual-function cell surface receptor/basic amino acid transporter. J Biol Chem 267:23617–23624
Wang H, Kavanaugh MP, and Kabat D (1994) A critical site in the cell surface receptor for ecotropic murine retroviruses required for amino acid transport but not for viral reception. Virology 202:1058–1060
Wang H, Kavanaugh MP, North RA, and Kabat D (1991) Cell-surface receptor for ecotropic murine retroviruses is a basic amino-acid transporter. Nature 352:729–731
Wehrle JP, and Pedersen PL (1989) Phosphate transport processes in eukaryotic cells. J Membr Biol 111:199–213
Weiss RA 1992. Cellular receptors and viral glycoproteins involved in retrovirus entry, p. 3–90. In JA Levy (ed.), The Retroviruses, vol. 2. Plenum Press
Weller SK, Joy AE, and Temin HM (1980) Correlation between cell killing and massive second-round superinfection by members of some subgroups of avian leukosis virus. J Virol 33:494–506
Wentworth DE, and Holmes KV (2001) Molecular determinants of species specificity in the coronavirus receptor aminopeptidase N (CD13): influence of N-linked glycosylation. J Virol 75:9741–9752
Werner A, Dehmelt L, and Nalbant P (1998) Na+-dependent phosphate cotransporters: the NaPi protein families. J Exp Biol 201:3135–3142
White J, Kartenbeck J, and Helenius A (1980) Fusion of Semliki forest virus with the plasma membrane can be induced by low pH. J Cell Biol 87:264–272
White JM 1995. Membrane fusion: The influenza paradigm, p. 581–588, Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 60. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press
White MF (1985) The transport of cationic amino acids across the plasma membrane of mammalian cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 822:355–374
White MF, Gazzola GC, and Christensen HN (1982) Cationic amino acid transport into cultured animal cells. I. Influx into cultured human fibroblasts. J Biol Chem 257:4443–4449
Wilk T, de Haas F, Wagner A, Rutten T, Fuller S, Flugel RM, and Lochelt M (2000) The intact retroviral Env glycoprotein of human foamy virus is a trimer. J Virol 74:2885–2887
Wilson CA, and Eiden MV (1991) Viral and cellular factors governing hamster cell infection by murine and gibbon ape leukemia viruses. J Virol 65:5975–5982
Wilson CA, Eiden MV, Anderson WB, Lehel C, and Olah Z (1995) The dual-function hamster receptor for amphotropic murine leukemia virus (MuLV), 10A1 MuLV, and gibbon ape leukemia virus is a phosphate symporter. J Virol 69:534–537
Wilson CA, Farrell KB, and Eiden MV (1994) Comparison of cDNAs encoding the gibbon ape leukaemia virus receptor from susceptible and non-susceptible murine cells. J Gen Virol 75:1901–1908
Wilson CA, Farrell KB, and Eiden MV (1994) Properties of a unique form of the murine amphotropic leukemia virus receptor expressed on hamster cells. J Virol 68:7697–7703
Wilson CA, Wong S, VanBrocklin M, and Federspiel MJ (2000) Extended analysis of the in vitro tropism of porcine endogenous retrovirus. J Virol 74:49–56
Wu T, Lee CG, Buckler-White A, and Kozak CA (2002) Genetic control of a mouse serum lipoprotein factor that inactivates murine leukemia viruses: evaluation of apolipoprotein f as a candidate. J Virol 76:2279–2286
Yang YL, Guo L, Xu S, Holland CA, Kitamura T, Hunter K, and Cunningham JM (1999) Receptors for polytropic and xenotropic mouse leukaemia viruses encoded by a single gene at Rmc1. Nat Genet 21:216–219
Yoshimoto T, Yoshimoto E, and Meruelo D (1993) Identification of amino acid residues critical for infection with ecotropic murine leukemia retrovirus. J Virol 67:1310–1314
Yoshimura FK, Wang T, and Nanua S (2001) Mink cell focus-forming murine leukemia virus killing of mink cells involves apoptosis and superinfection. J Virol 75:6007–6015
Young JA, Bates P, and Varmus HE (1993) Isolation of a chicken gene that confers susceptibility to infection by subgroup A avian leukosis and sarcoma viruses. J Virol 67:1811–1816
Zavorotinskaya T, and Albritton LM (1999) Suppression of a fusion defect by second site mutations in the ecotropic murine leukemia virus surface protein. J Virol 73:5034–5042
Zerangue N, and Kavanaugh MP (1996) ASCT-1 is a neutral amino acid exchanger with chloride channel activity. J Biol Chem 271:27991–27994
Zhang YJ, Hatziioannou T, Zang T, Braaten D, Luban J, Goff SP, and Bieniasz PD (2002) Envelope-dependent, cyclophilin-independent effects of glycosaminoglycans on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 attachment and infection. J Virol 76:6332–6343
Zhao Y, Lee S, and Anderson WF (1997) Functional interactions between monomers of the retroviral envelope protein complex. J Virol 71:6967–6972
Zhao Y, Zhu L, Benedict CA, Chen D, Anderson WF, and Cannon PM (1998) Functional domains in the retroviral transmembrane protein. J Virol 72:5392–5398
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Tailor, C.S., Lavillette, D., Marin, M., Kabat, D. (2003). Cell Surface Receptors for Gammaretroviruses. In: Young, J.A.T. (eds) Cellular Factors Involved in Early Steps of Retroviral Replication. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol 281. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19012-4_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19012-4_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-62405-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-19012-4
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive