Policy Actions

Abstract

FREIGHTVISION, 35 policy actions were identified to influence the freight transport system with regard to the project’s four sustainability criteria. These actions are related to road transport, rail transport, IWW and maritime transport, supply chain, energy supplier and vehicle supplier. The analysis of each action covers experience and feasibility, potential impact on each of the four sustainability criteria, pro and contra arguments, RTD and transport policy tasks, milestones and a conclusion. This chapter summarizes this analysis.

The following authors are also the contributors of this chapter: Jürgen Schmiele, Ulrich Glöckl, Carina Botoft, Søren Saugstrup Nielsen, Helena Kyster-Hansen, Nihan Akyelken, David Bonilla, Olaf Meyer-Rühle, Ronald Jorna, Hans Zuiver, Kristin Stefan, Carine Vellay,Martin Volny, Julia Düh, AndrewWinder, Arne Böhmann, Frank Panse, Kamil Krusina, Vit Malinovský, Gerhard Bauer, Werner Jammernegg, Heidrun Rosič, Tuomas Mattila, Riina Antikainen

1 Introduction

Public policy is a system of actions taken by governmental entities concerning a given topic. In FREIGHTVISION’s case the ‘system of actions’ consist of research and technology development (RTD) and transport policy actions, the ‘governmental entity’ is the European Commission Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, and the ‘given topic’ is a sustainable transport system. The policy actions are combined in the next chapter to an “action plan”, which should enable that the FREIGHTVISION scenario will come true.

In the project 35 policy actions were identified and grouped into the following categories:

• Road transport

• Rail transport

• IWW and maritime

• Supply chain

• Energy supplier

• Vehicle supplier

Originally in the management summary prepared for the 2nd Forum Meeting 60 actions were listed. This list of 60 actions was reduced to 35 actions as some actions were combined and others seemed to be not so relevant.

These 35 actions were analyzed by desk research. As far as possible, the consortium tried to highlight different and conflicting literature/studies on each topic. The result of this analysis is presented on the following pages. The actions are

Road transport related actions

• 1. Investment in ITS

• 2. Investment in road infrastructure

• 3. Internalization of external costs

• 4. Modifying the rules for HGV weights and dimensions

• 5. Liberalization of cabotage

• 6. Progressive distance pricing

• 7. Different pricing with regards to type of freight

• 8. Harmonized speed limits

• 9. Congestion charge

• 10. Enforcement of regulations

Rail transport related actions

• 11. Investment in rail infrastructure

• 12. Freight prioritization

• 13. Funding for ERTMS / ETCS

• 14. Electrification of rail corridors

• 15. Longer trains

• 16. Heavier trains

IWW and maritime transport related actions

• 17. Investment in IWT infrastructure

• 18. Develop new technologies in IWW

• 19. Investment in maritime port infrastructure

Supply chain related actions

• 20. Training for eco-driving

• 21. Automated platooning

• 22. Standardized loading units

• 23. E-freight

• 24. Network optimization – cargo owner

• 25. Network optimization – logistics service provider

• 26. CO₂ labels

• 27. Intermodal transport

• 28. Transport consolidation and cooperation

• 29. Transport route planning and control

Energy suppliers related actions

• 30. Taxation of fossil fuels

• 31. Hydrogen infrastructure

• 32. Improved batteries (energy storage)

Vehicle supplier related actions

• 33. Including CO₂ standards into HGV regulations (EURO 6)

• 34. BAT vehicle certification for heavy goods vehicles

• 35. Clean vehicle technologies

The analysis of each action has the following structure

• Introduction

• Assessment

  • ○ Experience and feasibility

  • ○ Market perspective

  • ○ Potential

  • ○ PROs and CONs

  • ○ Conclusion

• Recommended tasks and milestones¹

  • ○ RTD policy

  • ○ Transport policy

  • ○ Milestones

1.1  

1.1.1 Experience and Feasibility

‘Experience and feasibility’ refer to the implementation of the analyzed actions in European countries or outside the European Union (when the action has not been applied yet within Europe).

Feasibility encompasses:

• Social feasibility: the environmental and societal issues, like effects on flora and fauna, visual influence and social equity,

• Economic feasibility: the impact of the action on economic growth,

• Political feasibility: analyzing whether there will be a high and powerful resistance from interest groups against this action,

• Technical feasibility: the main technical issues including costs.

1.1.2 Potential

‘Potential’ refers to the potential impact of an action on each sustainability criterion. As the impact cannot be quantified in total numbers, the project team has agreed to compare the actions’ impact with a rating scheme.

The rating scheme is

• ‘– – –’ strong negative impact

• ‘– –’ medium negative impact

• ‘–’ slight negative impact

• ‘0’ no impact

• ‘+’ slight positive impact

• ‘+ +’ medium positive impact

• ‘+ + +’ strong positive impact

In some cases there are also ranges (e.g. ‘– to ++’) stated as there are different opinions on the actions’ impact in the literature.

1.1.3 PROs and CONs

The most relevant pro and contra arguments for each action are listed in the PROs- and CONs- tables.

1.1.4 Conclusion

The final part contains a conclusion. Some conclusions contain a recommendation which takes into account the potential impact on all sustainability criteria and the pro and contra arguments. For the final conclusion the following 3 levels are used:

Not recommended

• No positive impact on one (or some) of the 4 sustainability criteria or

• Positive impacts on one (or some of the 4 sustainability criteria), but there are severe disadvantages from other points of view (e.g. economic growth, social aspects).

• The disadvantages outweigh the advantages.

Recommended

• Moderate positive impacts on one (or some) of the 4 sustainability criteria or

• If there are high positive impacts on one (or some of the 4 sustainability criteria, but there are disadvantages from other points of view (e.g. economic growth, social aspects);

• In total the positive impacts outweigh the negative impacts

Highly recommended

• High positive impact on one (or some) of the 4 sustainability criteria, and

• No or very limited disadvantages

1.1.5 Market Perspective

Who is affected by this action and what is their position on it.

1.1.6 RTD Policy

Is there a demand for RTD policy tasks? This includes all kinds of RTD tasks like basic research, applied research and demonstration projects.

1.1.7 Transport Policy

Is there a demand for transport policy tasks, both on national and European level?

1.1.8 Milestones

What progress should be achieved by 2020, 2035 and 2050?

2 Action 1 – Investment in ITS

• Jürgen Schmiele &
• Ulrich Glöckl 

1. TRANSVER GMBH, Munich, Germany

   Jürgen Schmiele & Ulrich Glöckl

2.1 Introduction

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) consist of a wide variety of systems: variable message signs (VMS), ramp metering, pre- and on-trip information, temporary hard shoulder running and collision avoidance systems (namely lane guard warnings and adaptive cruise control).

Historically, Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) have reduced the frequency and severity of road fatalities and congestion due to more harmonized speed limits and assistance systems. In future they will assist in providing high-quality transport network information, reduce the human error in driving; and they are a core element for the application of many policies.

Related actions are internalization of external costs (#3), congestion charging (#9), transport route planning and control (#29).

2.2 Assessment

2.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

ITS are installed on many critical segments and in many vehicles already today.

ITS have been assisting in easing transport problems in the past and will continue to do so in future. It has been shown that especially road fatalities and congestion can be tackled. Temporary hard shoulder running permits to increase the capacity during periods of high demand. Its implementation is faster and more affordable than an ordinary capacity extension. It indirectly reduces congestion by offering additional capacity. VMS informs drivers about warnings, alternative routes and speed limits. It reduces road fatalities and harmonizes traffic flow.

Road tolling systems should be harmonized within Europe for interoperability reasons for international road transport. A similar harmonization should take place for lane markings, because many driver assistance systems rely on video detection. The importance is growing because new technologies, like floating car data and vehicle-to-vehicle communication, permit to inform drivers and take action autonomously in case of emergency. Furthermore, they are considered to be a core element in smarter pricing schemes in future. ITS applications such as automated platooning (Action 21) are based on typical ITS applications.

Different new options may develop with more precise Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), because it will permit to track and trace freight more accurately. It may also be the fundament of new technologies such as “intelligent containers” that seek autonomously their routes and modes between origin and destination. Intermodal and comprehensive information networks are inevitable for such developments.

Various ITS research programs are developing new applications. As of today most systems significantly decrease the number of road fatalities, and therefore also incidents that can lead to congestion.

2.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Road-side infrastructure for ITS applications is publicly financed. Services and technologies from private companies are likely to gain momentum and contribute to an increasing importance, e.g. for safety systems as well as traffic and routing information. With improved data, the willingness to pay is likely to increase.

2.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.1

Table 9.1 Reduction potential – investment in ITS

2.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Reduction of human errors and thus reduction of road fatalities.

• Harmonization of traffic flow and thus reduction of road fatalities and congestion.

• Increase in capacity and significant reduction in accident-related congestion.

• Smoothening of traffic peaks.

• High potential for future policy implementation (cf. internalization of externalities, congestion pricing, tracking and tracing, etc.).

2.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Infrastructure-based systems only in metropolitan areas.

• Increased capacity attracts additional traffic.

• Critical masses necessary in order to deliver full potential.

• Product liability.

• Drivers have to accept their smart ‘assisting driver’.

• May counteract modal split policies.

2.2.6 Conclusion

ITS assist in easing future challenges, but they cannot solve them by themselves. They can deliver important reductions on congestion and increase traffic safety. Regarding GHG emissions, their impact is very limited and on fossil fuels share there is no impact. More detailed scientific studies on the effect on GHG emissions should be carried out, because it remains unclear. VMS and ramp metering can keep traffic flow stable and are recommended. Highly recommended are temporary hard shoulder running and collision avoidance systems reducing road fatalities and congestion drastically. ITS are considered to be a very important element for future pricing schemes as well as information and guidance opportunities for freight transport. Information systems in future should integrate different modes to permit smart decisions.

Highly Recommended

2.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

2.3.1 RTD Policy

• Quantification of the potential of GHG emission reduction due to information.

• More intermodal dynamic (route) planning systems to create intelligent freight transport chains.

• Effects of time and route sensitive road pricing on (secondary) road network.

• Satellite information for road transport and integration with planning systems.

• Pooling of freight transport supply & demand.

• Possibilities and chances of real-time intermodal transport information for freight forwarders.

• Integration of system architectures for comprehensive transport data pooling.

Demonstration Projects:

• Application of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) to increase road safety.

• Tracking & tracing using Galileo.

2.3.2 Transport Policy

Some aspects limit exploiting the full potential of information-based systems, or prevent their extensive application. Proper policy action should enable using their full benefits.

2.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Solving product liability

• support for more automated transport systems

• stronger emphasis on road safety mitigation (e.g. legal requirements)

• support for EU-wide (intermodal) transport information

2.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Provision of technology for transport pricing policies

• Probable mandatory active brake assist and lane guard systems for new HGV starting in 2013 (COM(2008)316)

• ICT in transport offers high quality intermodal transport information

By 2035:

• Broad application of co-operative safety systems

• Reliable pan-European intermodal transport information and short term projections for all modes

3 Action 2 – Investment in Road Infrastructure

• Carina Botoft,
• Søren Saugstrup Nielsen &
• Helena Kyster-Hansen 

1. TETRAPLAN A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark

   Carina Botoft, Søren Saugstrup Nielsen & Helena Kyster-Hansen

3.1 Introduction

The investments decided upon as regards the trans-European network include upgrading of lines as well and higher speeds on parts of the existing network. Many of the TEN investment plans concern projects for railways, and here mainly for high speed passenger lines. In the long perspective some new roads will probably be built in some areas of Europe, especially where the roads are in a condition that is of a very low standard, e.g. Romania and Bulgaria.

Some investments in infrastructure will probably be made in areas where congestion is high, e.g. in Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. But it is not likely that it will be possible to build many new roads or motorways in these areas because of the scarcity of land. Therefore the main purpose will be to reduce capacity shortage and road condition bottlenecks in the European road network.

The TEN road network is essential for the overall freight flows in Europe. Investments in the TEN-T should focus on removal of bottlenecks, linking networks of all modes of transport and better utilization of the existing network by using e.g. ITS. At the same time, it is necessary to have a holistic approach to the transport system as a whole. Introduction of Green Corridors is an opportunity for combining actions and a holistic approach. There is also a need to include the connections to the non-EU countries.

3.2 Assessment

3.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Many examples show that when building new roads in heavily congested areas, it takes only a few years time to reach the capacity limits for the new road. The result is congestion on the new road and thus the new road does not solve the problem with too much traffic on the existing road network. Reduction of bottlenecks in the road network is a very important focus, and even more so in the future. Maintenance of the existing roads is important to keep in focus, since suspension of maintenance of the roads can lead to very high extra costs. Therefore, there should be adequate investments in the maintenance of roads.

3.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Investments in road infrastructure affect all stakeholders, including road users, industry, transport operators and infrastructure managers. As investments can reduce the cost of transport, most commercial stakeholders are in favour of new investments.

3.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.2

Table 9.2 Reduction potential – investment in TEN network – road

3.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Investments in infrastructure (new roads) can lead to a better trans-European network in some areas in Europe

• New roads can handle the increasing volumes in Europe

• Removal of bottlenecks in the European road network will reduce the congestion as well as emissions

3.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• In transport corridors with high levels of congestion and pressure on land use, it is difficult to find space to build new roads.

• New roads will reduce the congestion for the first period of time, but eventually the congestion will return to same levels or higher levels.

3.2.6 Conclusion

Reduction of bottlenecks in the road network is a very important focus. It is thus recommended to reduce bottlenecks in the TEN network-road, and to combine these efforts with congestion charging.

Recommended

3.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

3.3.1 RTD Policy

• Collect and use knowledge on how to remove bottlenecks, with a holistic approach and usage of, e.g., ITS and multimodal terminals.

• Use knowledge to develop new ITS solutions and new ways of using the network, e.g. prioritized freight lanes/corridors.

• Develop new road, junction and hub design to counteract congestion.

3.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Green Corridor demonstration projects with electric supply infrastructure should be introduced, to show which effect a holistic multimodal approach could have on freight transport.

3.3.2 Transport Policy

The TEN networks are presently under revision and the current governance regime is that the EU supports the TEN investments, which mainly are proposed by the member states, but the member states still finance the bulk of the investments, and therefore they are the key decision-makers.

3.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

Co-ordination and prioritisation in eliminating bottlenecks and creating an integrated multi-modal network for freight transport, new investments focusing on GHG reduction.

3.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Focus on completing the revised TEN projects and ensure freight flows on the national and regional road network and their connection to the TEN road network.

3.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• An integrated multimodal approach to TEN road network has been implemented and the goal for a core and comprehensive network has been implemented, including both geographical and conceptual pillars on how to invest, and a demo model of a Green Corridor with electric supply infrastructure.

By 2035:

• The bottlenecks in the TEN road network have been relieved, and a multimodal core TEN network has been established, including a few Green Corridors with electric supply infrastructure.

By 2050:

• The TEN network consists of a fully integrated, multimodal network, with good access to the entire network, fully expanded electric supply infrastructure on TEN network.

4 Action 3 – Internalization of External Costs

• Nihan Akyelken,
• David Bonilla &
• Olaf Meyer-Rühle 

1. Oxford University, Oxford, UK

   Nihan Akyelken

2. Oxford University Centre for the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

   David Bonilla

3. ProgTrans AG, Basel, Switzerland

   Olaf Meyer-Rühle

4.1 Introduction

Internalization of external costs of transport has been an important issue on the EU agenda since the publication of the 1995 Green Paper on efficient pricing of transport. External costs are the utilisation of resources for which the user (causer) does not pay any compensation, in other words, they are costs, which traffic participants are inflicting on third persons. Vehicle operating costs (VOCs) and transport time costs are fully born by transport users. The objective of this action is that all other costs, i.e. the infrastructure, environmental damages and those accident costs, which are not covered by the users’ insurance are to be borne by them. The current “Eurovignette” Directive assures the full internalization of infrastructure costs. The importance of efficient pricing/taxation is scientifically endorsed and relates to all modes and types (passengers, freight) of transport. More recently, the Commission classifies congestion costs as external costs which is contested by scientists, as far as VOCs and time costs are concerned.

The internalization of external costs means to make externalities part of the decision-making process of transport users.

4.2 Assessment

4.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The main focus has been on charging heavy-goods vehicles. The vignette system has been replaced in certain EU member states by distance-based charges albeit with wide differences in application. Switzerland, a non-EU country, has introduced in 2001 a charging system which now makes all HGVs over 3.5 t GVW pay all costs including external costs on all roads on Swiss territory. Here, the build-up of the charge in three steps over 8 years has not produced a significant inflationary pressure nor has it had the expected effect of a major modal shift of freight to railways.

4.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Logistics and freight companies and vehicle suppliers would be negatively affected as they now have to pay for the costs to third parties. They could also be affected positively through the reduction of negative effects. The action may be beneficial for infrastructure managers, if additional revenue is used for public investment.

4.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.3

Table 9.3 Reduction potential – internalization of external costs

4.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• An action to correct market failures

• Contributes to a fairer society

• Revenue generation to cover or mitigate external costs

• Feasibility proven

4.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• High costs of implementation

• Needs harmonization at the EU level

• Action to be applied to all types and modes of transport

4.2.6 Conclusion

The objective of fairer pricing in transport should be applied to passenger and freight transport on all modes. The introduction for HGVs is easier in the political arena. As a first step, the action is

Recommended

4.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

4.3.1 RTD Policy

The main RTD policy relevant for the action should deal with reducing the high implementation costs of the action and calculation of the external effects. This requires research on new technologies that may reduce the costs of the action’s implementation, including the use of satellite positioning and real-time measurement of relevant external effects.

Basic research is required for identifying the regions, where there is high level of external costs and where the action threatens the European competitiveness and regional cohesion.

4.3.2 Transport Policy

The latest Eurovignette Directive issued by the EC in 2006 allows variation in tolls to reflect congestion and air pollution. The current rail infrastructure charging directive (Directive 2001/14/EC) allows charging for external effects in certain cases. The Greening Transport Package (2008) proposed to amend the Eurovignette Directive by removing the current prohibition of ‘external cost charging’. Directive 2004/52/EC provides a framework for the interoperability of toll collection systems within the EU (EETS); it entered into force in October 2009 and requires the Member States follow an EU-wide system for HGVs within 3 years.

4.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

EC should propose a directive for harmonizing policies in all modes of transport using the same criteria and the level of ambition (with a particular focus on the measurement of external effects and a common system of determining the costs attributed to them).

4.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Member States should be subject to harmonization of national schemes with the rest of the EU.

4.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Basic field research for identifying regions where there is high level of external costs and for reducing the high implementation costs as well as harmonization of national schemes

By 2035:

• Research on mapping of external effects followed by full coverage of the TEN-T network where relevant.

By 2050:

• Those technologies and the common framework should be deployable throughout the entire networks of EU Members States, where applicable, and all external costs should be internalized at all modes.

5 Action 4 – Modifying the Rules for HGV Weights and Dimensions

• Olaf Meyer-Rühle,
• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

1. Mobycon, Delft, The Netherlands

   Ronald Jorna & Hans Zuiver

5.1 Introduction

The objective of this action is to allow longer and/or heavier HGVs on parts of the road network in the European Union. Directive 96/53/EC regulates weights and dimensions of HGVs within the territory of the EU. Member States are entitled to allow longer and/or heavier trucks (LHV) to circulate in their country, provided that this does not affect international competition. International transits are not allowed. The EC is considering the implications of allowing the use of LHVs, measuring up to 25.25 meter and/or weighing up to 60 tonnes, for the whole European transport system.

5.2 Assessment

5.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Until recently only Sweden and Finland made use of this possibility. Tests are now undertaken in Denmark, The Netherlands, and the German states Thuringia and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Belgium and France have expressed interest in testing this concept. On the other hand, countries like Germany, Austria and the UK as well as several others have said “no” to LHVs. In their views LHVs are perceived to produce a lot of CO₂, form a threat to the competitive position of the rail sector and have a negative influence on road safety. LHVs of 60 tonnes are also expected to require investments in the existing road infrastructure.

5.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The positions of road hauliers and their associations and federations are mixed. An assimilation of presently allowed weights and actions to a European Modular System (EMS) does not pose a commercial problem where suitable transport demand exists. However, the impact on modal shift is unclear at this stage. Tests on international pilot corridors are recommended to test market reactions.

5.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.4

Table 9.4 Reduction potential – modifying the rules for HGV weights and dimensions

5.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Decrease of operational costs due to higher efficiency

• Decrease of emissions depending on the real effect on modal shift

• Fewer trucks for the same amount of goods transported

• Positive influences on road safety and emissions

• Member States set the network where these trucks are allowed

5.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Reduced cost will generate more demand for road transport

• Improved competitive position versus rail and IWT

• Increased emissions, congestion and negative impacts on safety

• Investments needed in road infrastructure for heavier vehicles

• If road fatalities occur, the damage might be higher due to weight

5.2.6 Conclusion

The future of LHVs in Europe is still uncertain, and it will take some time before a final decision can be made on the European level. DG TREN has meanwhile commissioned a new technical and economic study on the subject.

No preference due to contradicting studies. Recommendation for further impact assessment of the three alternatives (longer, heavier, longer and heavier)

5.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

5.3.1 RTD Policy

On the side of the vehicles, no new technology is necessary. Additional safety requirements may be imposed.

Only parts of the infrastructure may be permitted for EMS vehicles (e.g. motorways and similar highways, UNECE classified E-roads, EU classified trans-European road network). Bridges may have to be reinforced and other infrastructures may need adjustments. Public yards for recomposition of EMS vehicles are needed.

There is no need for specific technological research, but on aerodynamics improvements as well as on crashworthiness and braking characteristics of HGV.

5.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Monitoring and impact assessment of an international pilot corridor scheme

5.3.2 Transport Policy

National governments can decide to permit longer and heavier vehicles (LHVs) within the boundaries of their jurisdiction. Cross-border operations require EU regulation.

5.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

Pending further impact assessments and possibly pilot corridor tests, the European Commission has not yet made formal proposals for intra-EU cross-border operations of LHVs. It is possible that not all or only a smaller group of Member States agree to an EMS.

New regulation of HGV actions and weights will require additional legislation on the operation of such vehicles.

5.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

The subsidiarity principle allows national governments to open parts of their road networks for EMS vehicles. Most MS governments, apart from Finland and Sweden, have so far been reluctant to do this; tests on national territory only are allowed in certain Member States.

5.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Regulations for the EMS are expected to be in place, unless disagreements between Member States prevent the system from becoming operational.

6 Action 5 – Liberalization of Cabotage

• Olaf Meyer-Rühle &
• Kristin Stefan 

1. ProgTrans AG, Basel, Switzerland

   Kristin Stefan

6.1 Introduction

Cabotage is defined as domestic transport (between two points in the same Member State) by an operator from another Member State. Road cabotage is regulated by the EU by EU regulation ECC 3118/93 but has been liberalized step by step since 1994. It is allowed on a “temporary” basis to prevent abuse (exception: precarriage and postcarriage of combined transport according to Directive 91/106). A harmonization of rules will become into effect in May 14th, 2010 (EC regulation 1072/2009).

The action should also apply to rail and inland water transport and short-sea shipping.

6.2 Assessment

6.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Under present legal restrictions and according to Eurostat data, EU hauliers performed in 2006 about 16 billion tonne-kilometres (tkm) of road cabotage operations representing about 0.8% of total and ca. 1.2% of domestic road haulage performance. Hauliers from six countries operate two-thirds (67%) of total EU cabotage: Germany (2.3 billion tkm), Netherlands (2.2), Luxemburg (2.1), Belgium (1.6), Poland (1.3) and Italy (1.0). The BENELUX countries, centrally located between Germany, France and the UK, combine 6 billion tkm or almost 40% of total EU cabotage. On the other side, three out of four (75%) cabotage tonne-kilometres are performed in five countries: France (4.3 billion tkm), Germany (3.2), UK (1.7), Italy and Spain (1.0 each). The size of a country is of course the main factor. Partly it is an unbalanced situation, e.g. France (large country; high labour costs): foreign operators perform 4.3 bn tkm in France while French operators perform only 0.5 bn tkm abroad; Luxemburg (small country; active in international transport): 0.02 and 2.1, respectively.²

The action is feasible.

6.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are road hauliers, shippers and consumers of good transports.

• In principle road hauliers and shippers could use the capacity of their trucks better and reduce empty running. Due to different situations in countries of the European Union (EU) concerning, e.g., labour costs (high vs. low) and their geographical positions within the EU (central vs. peripheral), the attitude of road hauliers and shippers will depend on if they could take an advantage of liberalization or not.

• For consumers, prices of good transports could decrease due to reduced empty running and increased competition.

6.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.5

Table 9.5 Reduction potential – liberalisation of cabotage

6.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Reduction of empty driving

• More efficient transport and use of vehicles

• Less vehicle-km and hence less operating costs, emissions etc.

• Strengthening of competition

• Cheaper transport

6.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Lack of harmonization

• Abuse by operators from cheap labour countries

• Abuses difficult to monitor; lack of law enforcement

• Peripheral countries are disadvantaged

• Possible market distortion

6.2.6 Conclusion

Full liberalization of cabotage is only suitable if cannibalization of domestic transport markets can be excluded (precondition: convergence of vehicle operating costs, in particular labour costs). We consider that a market penetration of 2% can be absorbed without significant market distortion.

Recommended

6.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

6.3.1 RTD Policy

This action does not depend on technologies at all. There is no need for research and demonstration projects.

6.3.2 Transport Policy

Road cabotage is regulated by the EU by EU regulation ECC 3118/93 but has been liberalised step by step since 1994. It is allowed on a “temporary” basis to prevent abuse (exception: precarriage and postcarriage of combined transport according to Directive 91/106).

6.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

A harmonisation of rules will become into effect in May 14^th, 2010 (EC regulation 1072/2009), limiting cabotage trips to 3 within 7 days and up to 3 cabotage trips (1 only per country) on the way back to the home country. In case of proven serious market disturbance in inland transport, European Member States can apply for additional restrictions to the European Commission. But a definition of serious market disturbance does not yet exist.

Finally in a European single internal market, where everything is allowed to move freely, transport operators should too.

6.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

National governments cannot avoid cabotage, because EU law is community law and has to be obeyed.

6.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• FREIGHTVISION team assumes that by 2020 cabotage will be fully liberalized within the European Union with a market penetration of 2% of domestic road haulage performance (2006: 1.2%).

7 Action 6 – Progressive Distance Pricing

• Carine Vellay &
• Martin Volny 

7.1 Introduction

The action is aiming at progressive charging of freight depending on the total distance travelled. This action should not take into account external costs. Operational analyses of EU freight identified that road and rail freight are competing primarily on distances above 500 km. Transport above 500 km has a share of 38% of all freight kilometres and 43% of all freight tkm. Therefore an implementation of this action could have a positive impact on modal shift.

7.2 Assessment

7.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

There are no direct experiences with progressive distance pricing in EU. The progressive distance-based charging could meet the EU Eurovignette directive (2006/38/EC), if the income from the charge/tax is used for infrastructure funding purposes (with max. of 25% considered on environmental impact). It is expected that the action will have significant economic impact. For an effective system deployment and operation, the system needs to be cross-country interoperable to allow fair and clear monitoring of freight transport.

7.2.2 Reduction Potential

Table 9.6

Table 9.6 Reduction potential – progressive distance pricing

7.2.3 Pro Arguments:

• Promoting modal shift to alternative freight modes (rail, inland water, …)

• Reducing long-distance travel and possible reduce number of road fatalities caused by driver’s tiredness

• No need for extensive detection and enforcement system development, this could be applied if the current road user charging schemes are being used as a base of this system.

7.2.4 Contra Arguments:

• Unjustified intervention in market; not in line with present EU policies

• Will require effective and interoperable enforcement system

• Will require legal modification of Eurovignette directive

7.2.5 Conclusion

This action needs to be viewed as an additional or replacement charge / tax to existing distance based charging schemes in Europe. It is expected that in order to apply progressive distance-based charging, all EU countries will need to introduce national road user charging schemes, which are capable of being extended to progressive distance-based charging. The technological and legislative framework needs to be set up for enforcement procedures.

Not recommended due to the complexity of the action and not alliance with existing EU policies.

8 Action 7 – Different Pricing with Regards to Type of Freight

• Carine Vellay &
• Martin Volny 

8.1 Introduction

Different pricing with regards to type of freight aims to promote a modal shift of certain type of goods.

8.2 Assessment

8.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

There are no direct experiences related to the implementation of this action. A future implementation will require a modification of the current EU ‘Eurovignette’ Directive (2006/38/EC). There are no special taxes/charges related to particular freight modes. By privileging one transport mode, the service will become cheaper, but other competitive values as for example time of delivery, reliability, support services etc. are not affected.

The deployment of this action will be complicated as a unified information system is needed, where all type of goods is stored. This system must be easily accessible for enforcement units. The enforcement will need to be done manually by patrol vehicles, which could physically check if the load type of freight is correctly declared and paid for.

8.2.2 Reduction Potential

Table 9.7

Table 9.7 Reduction potential – different pricing with regards to type of freight

8.2.3 Pro Arguments:

• Possible flexible tool for freight type preference

• Reduction of number of trips on road network by promoting alternative modes

• Possible congestion and accident reduction

8.2.4 Contra Arguments:

• Requires good integration monitoring system of goods being transported with effective enforcement

• Difficult to reach agreement (due to interest groups)

8.2.5 Conclusion

This action focuses on shifting certain type of goods on a certain mode. By applying this action, a bigger modal shift could be achieved.

Not recommended due to the expected low acceptance of the action and the complexity of the system enforcement.

9 Action 8 – Harmonized Speed Limits

• Julia Düh 

1. AustriaTech – Federal Agency for Technological Measures, Vienna, Austria

   Julia Düh

9.1 Introduction

Harmonizing the speed limits between freight and passenger vehicles is one action that is expected to have positive effects on CO₂ emissions, congestion and traffic safety. For long-distance freight transport on road, we focus mainly on high level roads and interurban traffic. Speed Limits vary for vehicle types and among the different countries in Europe. There are varying truck speed limits between 60 km/h and 90 km/h on highways and between 70 km/h and 110 km/h on motorways (IRU).

Harmonizing speed limits result in two areas of interest:

• A speed reduction can have effects on the number of road fatalities, fossil fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions (Federal Highway Administration; OECD, 2005) and

• A reduction of the speed difference between the passenger cars and HGV with regards to the impact on traffic density and flow (EC, 2009).

9.2 Assessment

9.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Since 2007 in France on the A7 in the Rhône area are speed limits introduced for LV and HGV when traffic is too high in order to ease the traffic flow and avoid drivers to «stop and go» on the motorway. Analyses for the motorway A7 show speed limits have very high benefits: it decreases congestion by 25%, road fatalities by 30% and emissions of pollutants (src. ASF).

9.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are hauliers, vehicle suppliers (of HGV and passenger cars) and passenger car drivers: hauliers would prefer if stop-and-go traffic and peaks hours of passenger cars were reduced. Vehicle suppliers of HGV: if speed was reduced below 90 km/h, there would be a need to optimize on the lower speed limit. Vehicle suppliers of passenger cars: inexpensive cars might become more attractive. Passenger car drivers are against a reduction of speed limits.

9.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.8

Table 9.8 Reduction potential – harmonised speed limits

9.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Crash-incidence/crash-severity generally decline when speed limits are reduced

• Summarizing studies: reduction of 1 km/h leads to 3% less number of injury in road fatalities

• Congestion level and emission of pollution may decrease

• Harmonized speed limits can increase the average speed and shorten travel time, free capacity for more vehicles

• Lower average speed may lead to reduced traffic volumes (less vehicles) and mitigate GHG emission.

• Fuel consumption saving

9.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• No EU wide policy on enhanced speed harmonization/reduction

• Few specific HGV studies on changed speed limits (just general for road)

• Free capacities caused by increased average speed may indicate new traffic and may rise CO₂ emission

9.2.6 Conclusion

Reducing and harmonizing speed limits help to save lives and to mitigate emissions in some situations. The efficiency depends on the individual road situation, the traffic density, the speed limit and the average speed. Drivers’ education and public work is needed.

Recommended

9.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

9.3.1 RTD Policy

No new technologies have to be developed, but there is a demand for basic and applied research in the field of harmonizing data collection for safety aspects and simulation projects to optimize traffic flow.

Demonstration projects are the main instrument to gain experience with the action.

9.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Harmonization of traffic speed with variable message signs for all vehicles with special focus on HGV.

• Safety issues, reliability of traffic flow and impact on CO₂ reduction of passenger and freight transport (interdependencies)

9.3.2 Transport Policy

The current governance regime is that speed limits both for HGV and passenger cars are in the responsibility of the Member States. Directive 2002/85/EC all trucks above 3.5 tonnes have to be equipped with a speed limiter to 90 km/h.

9.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Changed legislation for a maximum 20 km/h speed difference between passenger cars and HGV is one way to harmonize speed limits. This could be one recommendation to Member States.

• Defining minimum quality standards for data collection and analyzing for safety issues for all member states.

9.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

On national levels, action plans for implementing the harmonization of speed limits on critical roads and national transport demand is needed.

9.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Europe-wide harmonization for data collection and analysis, the demonstration projects are completed and altered legislation should be finalized.

By 2035:

• The concept introduced on critical roads depending on the result of the demonstration projects is implemented by all member states.

10 Action 9 – Congestion Charge

• David Bonilla,
• Olaf Meyer-Rühle &
• Nihan Akyelken 

10.1 Introduction

Congestion is caused when transport demand outstrips capacity within the road network. It generally occurs only temporarily at peak hours of light vehicle traffic. Congestion translates into costs for time loss, for environmental damage, and for road fatalities. These costs, also, raise operating costs and the cost per mile of LDFT truck movements. The effect of charging is to reduce travel demand and congestion at peak periods, and to increase speeds and the total net benefits of moving goods and travel. Recycling revenues of congestion could make the action more acceptable.

10.2 Assessment

10.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Congestion is caused by both light and heavy vehicles. There is no congestion charging outside urban areas in the EU27 Member States. France abandoned its congestion charge scheme. Most congestion is caused by light vehicles rather than by LDFT trucks and policy should avoid singling out HGVs. The action can, however, have a positive impact on our four criteria. The charge should be fiscally neutral.

10.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Road users would save driving time, and may reduce fuel consumption and emissions, which translate into lower operating costs. A congestion charge should focus on time of day and on place of congestion; for maximum efficiency the charge should be fiscally neutral in the sense that revenues from charges in congested (peak) hours should be redistributed to those who use the roads outside the peaks. The impact of such a charging scheme would be modest for HGVs which operate throughout the day.

10.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.9

Table 9.9 Reduction potential – congestion charge

10.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Lower HGV operating costs, driving time savings, reduction of fuel consumption and of emissions

10.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• General congestion charge un-founded

• Charge for LDFT only inadequate, since congestion is largely caused by light vehicle traffic peaks

• High implementation costs

• Faces strong opposition for passenger traffic (mobility restrictions)

10.2.6 Conclusion

Congestion charging for LDFT is a politically controversial action, since most congestion is caused by the passenger car. The Commission’s proposal to introduce an around-the-clock congestion charge is unfounded and inadequate to reduce congestion. This charge has to be fiscally neutral. Recycling of revenues strengthens its overall political and social feasibility (Safirova et al., 2003).

As a fiscally neutral action, focused on traffic shift to off-peak periods and applied to all road users in the congested area, it is

Recommended

10.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

10.3.1 RTD Policy

Like the internalization of external costs, the main technology policy relevant for the action should deal with the high implementation costs of the action. This requires research on improved technologies that may reduce the costs of the action’s implementation. The action would require research on real time measurement of traffic flow and real time charging as well as research on the clarification of the definition of external costs and congestion. Additional research is required to identify if/where the action threatens the European competitiveness and regional cohesion.

Since there is no congestion charge outside urban areas in the EU27, a demonstration project in non-urban regions should provide a useful test of the action.

10.3.2 Transport Policy

The action should be applied in EU regions where relevant, i.e. where there is congestion. Although the EC should provide the main framework, the Member States should be allowed to customize pricing and coverage according to their demands.

10.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The scheme would be introduced gradually in steps of decades. The main task of the scheme is to develop a rational concept to avoid congestion, i.e. aim at a distribution of traffic that keeps users of infrastructure moving.

10.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Congestion charging schemes would be introduced based on a local assessment of the level of congestion. The demonstration projects should be introduced first in the large economies of the EU so as to avoid affecting the economies of new Member States.

10.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• The basic field research should be carried out to ease its implementation and for clarifying its definition; and it should be applicable where there is high level of congestion.

By 2035:

• Full coverage of the TEN-T network (without ignoring the possible risks to European competitiveness and regional cohesion).

By 2050:

• The action should be operational in all EU countries where relevant.

11 Action 10 – Enforcement of Regulations

• Carina Botoft,
• Søren Saugstrup Nielsen &
• Helena Kyster-Hansen 

11.1 Introduction

In order to ensure that truck drivers and hauliers are following the laws and regulations already implemented within the road freight area, controls are carried out within the Member States. A directive regulates the minimum number of controls, but it seems that when the controls are carried out, a large number of infringements of different areas are found. The controls are also a tool to help all the truck drivers and hauliers that follow the rules and keeps up the good reputation, by given fines to those who do not follow the rules. In this way stricter control is a tool to sort out those who break the laws by driving too fast, drive too many hours, or with too much freight on the trucks, etc. Stricter control could also be of importance when it comes to check whether the hauliers fulfill their obligations to give training in eco-driving to the truck drivers every fifth year. Controls by means of photo cells are another important system to control. The enforcement of regulations in relation to, e.g., the social rules in road transport and safety rules has a important role in ensuring good working conditions for drivers, improving road safety and ensure fair competition and reducing emissions.

11.2 Assessment

11.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

In a recent police control in Denmark where trucks and truck drivers were stopped, almost half of them got different kind of fines. A stricter control of trucks, truck drivers and hauliers could send strong signals to those that do not always follow laws and regulations (or try to twist it), for instance when it comes to respecting the speed limits.

A way of implementing stricter control is to put up more photo-control-systems and connect these with IT systems. Hereby an automatic check can be given upon whether the truck has been driving too fast from one photo-control to another. This is in function in, e.g., Norway and The Netherlands.

11.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Enforcement of regulations affects hauliers, drivers and industry in general. The way they are enforced has an impact on working conditions for drivers, administrative burdens on both drivers and hauliers, the level of fairness in competition between hauliers and the cost of transport for the industry in general.

11.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.10

Table 9.10 Reduction potential – enforcement of regulations

11.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Safer roads are expected if a higher percentage of the truck drivers follow the speed limits and other regulations

• Lower fuel consumption if fewer truck drivers drive too fast

• Possible to make more joined European actions

• Possible to use more photo-control systems

11.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Expensive to make more control, but probably the costs are low when making cost-benefit analysis (costs for stricter control versus fewer road fatalities and less CO₂ emissions)

• Resistance of “big brother is watching you”

11.2.6 Conclusion

It is highly recommended to make strict controls more frequent and to use more often photo control systems. European coordination of stricter controls and coordination of photo control systems on a broader scale is also

Highly Recommended

11.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

11.3.1 RTD Policy

In relation to enforcement of regulations, there is a demand for the following research actions:

• Development of new technology that can ease the burden of administration of hauliers and drivers

• Development of automatic control systems, e.g. on rest time, weight and weight distribution

• Develop a training scheme for inspection teams

11.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

Make a demonstration project on good practice for enforcement in a number of Member States, to evaluate how it works in different settings.

11.3.2 Transport Policy

The EU decides on the regulations, and it’s up to the member states to implement them. This leads to different ways of implementation and enforcement.

11.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

At the EU level there is a need for co-ordination of the enforcement by clarifying the focus areas of the enforcement, including levels of fines. Furthermore, there is a need to investigate if/how it is possible to simplify regulations.

11.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

At the national level there is a need for exchange of methods and enforcement in co-ordination with other member states – and the enforcement should focus more on companies that do not comply with regulations.

11.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Enforcement of regulations should be harmonized throughout member states, all drivers and hauliers should comply with all regulations and the EU should make assessment of implementation of all new regulations.

By 2035:

• New technology should relieve administrative burdens for drivers and hauliers, as well as enforcement authorities.

12 Action 11 – Investment in Rail Infrastructure

• Carine Vellay,
• Martin Volny &
• Andrew Winder 

1. Egis Mobilité, Lyon, France

   Andrew Winder

12.1 Introduction

Most railways in Europe are shared between passengers and freight transport. In most countries, passenger trains are prioritized on the network and slots are allocated to freight once passenger schedules are defined. Investment in new railway dedicated to freight leads to more performance for rail transport and offers a competitive alternative to road freight transport. Development of railways dedicated to passengers (high speed lanes) can also help to free slots for freight transport on existing railways.

Providing rail corridors that are mainly or completely dedicated to freight can enable rail to become more competitive against other freight modes (especially road transport) and provide a higher quality service, while minimizing conflicts with passenger rail transport. This would address the current barrier to modal shift to rail posed by railway infrastructure capacity constraints.

12.2 Assessment

12.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

There is only one existing freight dedicated railway in Europe: the Betuweroute in the Netherlands.

Generally, financing and funding is the main difficulty for building new railways, both freight and passenger ones. Public–private partnerships offer new financial schemes for infrastructure projects with both public and private funding (building, management …).

12.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The main actors could include governments, regions, national rail infrastructure operators, construction companies, financing institutions and other private operators (e.g. in PPPs).

12.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.11

Table 9.11 Reduction potential – investment in new railway lines

12.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Improves the competitiveness and quality of rail transport supply (fewer delays, reduced travel time…)

• Helps to improve intermodality along the corridors and decreases waiting time at borders

• New freight lines would create cooperation and allow to apprehend the European rail network as a whole

• In the long term, creation of new railway lines and a good management will allow the extension of the rail connections with neighbouring countries outside the EU

12.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Important financial means needed: costs of extending the network

• Improvement and cooperation in network management between countries, between railways managers

• Technical issues have to be taken into account in the construction of the new lines of freight (interoperability, ERTMS, etc…)

12.2.6 Conclusion

Investment in new railway lines is a highly recommended action, but it has to be anticipated and developed over a long period of time due to its various constraints (high cost, heavy investment, a higher number of partners, a cost-benefit analysis is required in advance of the implementation of the action, etc…).

Highly Recommended

12.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

12.3.1 RTD Policy

• New technologies for traffic monitoring and control to increase and optimize railway operation and capacity

• Review identified congested railway hubs in Europe and integrate them into unify list with prioritized investment in bypasses of the network bottlenecks;

• Automated goods handling, monitoring of the goods, optimize hub operations, etc.

12.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

Prioritize locations of bottlenecks on the EU strategic network and perform feasibility study focused on tackling the line, consolidation centres, and junctions’ capacity problems.

And Identify strategic long-distance rail freight corridors and develop framework for cooperation and integration of these corridors.

12.3.2 Transport Policy

The development of the TEN-Rail is a key tenet of EU transport policy. Combined usage (passenger/freight) and dedicated freight lines are supported by EC Directive COM (2008) 852, which focuses on priority rail freight corridors. Investment is essentially at national level, with EU funding for projects of regional or trans-European importance (ERDF /TEN-T funding).

12.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

EU policy supports the construction of new lines and improvements to existing lines to achieve high-quality pan European rail networks for passenger and freight traffic, with these conflicting types of train operation managed or separated to the maximum extent. Development of high-speed passenger rail should not relegate freight to secondary importance; rather it could help release capacity on classic railway lines for more freight use.

12.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Focus on deployment of national/regional railway corridors/lines for both combined usage (passenger/freight) and freight only with effective cross-border connections and links to ports.

12.3.3 Milestones

By 2012 integrate current railway infrastructure needs (already identified) into document covering the TEN-Rail network and develop appropriate financing models for new rail infrastructure, including research on best practice for business models. By 2035 approve and commence construction on key railway infrastructure (lines, junctions, freight yards, etc) with secure finance packages. By 2050 an integrated TEN for rail freight will exist, with major bottlenecks removed.

13 Action 12 – Freight Prioritization

• Arne Böhmann &
• Frank Panse 

1. TSB Innovationsagentur Berlin GmbH-FAV, Berlin, Germany

   Arne Böhmann & Frank Panse

13.1 Introduction

Freight transport corridors consist of lines that combine passenger and freight transport with enough capacity to accommodate the whole of the demand for freight transport services.

13.2 Assessment

13.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The European Commission wants to determine European rail networks which consist of transnational freight traffic corridors. These corridors are going to be reserved for prior freight traffic. About 12500 km of railway tracks have to be built and 12300 km modernized in order to cover all networks. A proposal of the European Commission states that 3 years after taking effect each Member State has to set up at least one corridor. If transport volumes exceed 30 or 70 bn tkm at least two or three corridors have to be set up. Further decisions on the proposal are to be expected by the end of October 2009.

13.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are the rail freight industries and the rail passenger transport sector:

• Rail-cargo companies would prefer if priorities on corridors were shifted to improve competitiveness in the transport sector

• Rail passenger transport would be less attractive as a mode to travel if no new logistical concepts for both passenger and freight transport are introduced

• Infrastructure managers are able to regulate track distribution by track access fees

13.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.12

Table 9.12 Reduction potential – freight prioritization

13.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Decreasing costs of transportation

• Creating a competitive mode of transportation in terms of costs and punctuality

• Reduction of environmental costs

• Faster handling of goods

• Decreasing standing times at the borders

• Improvement of intermodality along the corridors

13.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Reduces availability for passenger transport

• Increasing delays in passenger transport can be expected

• Train path compensations could increase and as a result increase the price for passenger transportation

• Passengers might decide to select another mode of transportation as their first choice

• Increasing costs of congestion due to decreasing numbers of passengers in the railway sector

• Investments in passing loops

• Noise pollution

• Costs of upgrading and extending the infrastructure

13.2.6 Conclusion

The setting up of freight transport corridors is an important step toward a competitive freight transport sector. It secures punctuality and decreases costs of transportation. Freight transport corridors have to compete with the passenger transport sector, which in most cases has priority and would have to deal with increasing delays and availability. A cost-benefit analysis is required in advance of the implementation of the action. The prioritization of freight transport on railway lines is

Recommended

13.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

13.3.1 RTD Policy

Demand for research concerning new logistical concepts in the freight and passenger transport sector.

• Cost-benefit analysis (Integrated Impact Assessment)

• Social studies (influence on availability of public transport)

• New logistical concepts and pricing structures

13.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Impact on competitiveness of the rail freight transport sector

• Impact on CO₂ reduction of the freight transport sector

• Demonstration of concept on a secondary line for freight and passengers

13.3.2 Transport Policy

The current governance regime is that passenger transport has priority on European corridors. The European Commission wants to determine European rail networks which consist of transnational freight traffic corridors. Further decisions on the proposal are expected to follow by March 2010.

13.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

Recommendation for the setting up of priority rail freight corridors in order to increase the market share of freight transport. KOM(2008)852

13.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Balancing of rail track availability for the passenger and transport sector.

13.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Demonstration projects finalized until 2020

• EC-Recommendations until 2020

By 2030:

• Increase of freight train speed limits to 120 km/h

By 2050:

• Increase of freight train speed limits to 160 km/h

14 Action 13 – Funding for ERTMS / ECTS

• Kamil Krusina &
• Vit Malinovský 

1. Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic

   Kamil Krusina & Vit Malinovský

14.1 Introduction

ERTMS is rapidly becoming the major global standard not just in Europe but around the globe, according to statistics on ERTMS deployment by UNIFE, the European rail industry. As a first step the upgrade of the TEN-T network to Level 2 is recommended.

ERTMS consists of two basic components:

ETCS, the European Train Control System, is an automatic train protection system (ATP) to replace the existing national ATP-systems;

GSM-R, a radio system for providing voice and data communication between the track and the train, based on standard GSM using frequencies specifically reserved for rail application with certain specific and advanced functions.

ERTMS aims at replacing the different national train control and command systems in Europe. The deployment of ERTMS will enable the creation of a seamless European railway system and increase European railway’s competitiveness.

14.2 Assessment

14.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

More than 2200 km tracks in the EU are operated with the support of the ERTMS. Further thousands kilometres tracks are under construction across the whole EU. ERTMS is already under commercial service in some countries outside EU – South Korea 760 km and Taiwan 1200 km. Other countries (Saudi Arabia, Mexico, India, Algeria, China) are in construction phase.

14.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The suppliers for ETCS are the 6 UNISIG companies: Alstom Transport, Ansaldo STS, Bombardier Transportation, Invensys Rail Group, Siemens Mobility and Thales. On the customer side are the railways companies and the railway infrastructure operators both international and regional ones.

14.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.13

Table 9.13 Reduction potential – funding for ERTMS/ETCS

14.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Technical interoperability of international rail transport

• High level of safety

• Increase of capacity, due to decrease of headway between trains and increase of velocity, due to decrease of time loss on the borders on European railway tracks

• Decrease of control and communication systems on train’s cockpit, and following decrease of care, maintenance and crew training costs

• Standardized product, applicable outside EU

14.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Non-uniform operation procedures in Europe complicate the introduction of ETCS

• During the phase of introduction, the old and new system have to run simultaneously which leads to increasing costs

• Infrastructure operators with already existing efficient rail traffic guidance systems profit only marginally

• GSM-R capacities are not efficient in areas of railroad yards and railway junctions

14.2.6 Conclusion

ERTMS/ETCS seems to be very prospective technology, further implementation is

Highly Recommended

14.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

14.3.1 RTD Policy

Demand for the following actions:

• New technologies and logistical concepts for ERTMS (control and signaling systems compatible at multimodal transportation, effective in logistical centers and for MMT coordination generally)

• Roadmaps and new technologies

• New technologies using the capabilities of ERTMS

14.3.2 Transport Policy

ERTMS has now become the accepted global ATP standard and is trusted by the railways worldwide, thanks to the considerable advantages it brings in terms of capacity and multi-supplier capabilities. ERTMS introduction should be funded by EC to some agreed extend.

14.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The European Commission supports the implementation of ERTMS systems and services across all transport modes aiming at transport safety and efficiency increase, particularly on the trans-European transport network (TEN-T). EC should introduce studies emphasizing ERTMS expediencies as well return of investments to ERTMS.

14.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

The EU countries consider this issue very consistently; it provides support to European-wide efforts in this area. The interest in the transport telematics development and the support to such technologies is being manifested not only by the authorities but also by regional and municipal authorities. Member states should cooperate more on international ERTMS standardization, ensuring transport effectiveness and interoperability for prospective use.

14.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• ERTMS implementation at main lines and equipment (about 4000 locomotives)

By 2035:

• Main lines and secondary lines equipped with ERTMS (equipment and tracks)

By 2050:

• Full coverage of ERTMS (equipment and tracks)

15 Action 14 – Electrification of Rail Corridors

• Arne Böhmann &
• Frank Panse 

15.1 Introduction

Electrification provides a variety of advantages as lower fuel costs, faster acceleration, lower capital and maintenance costs, reduced air pollution and locomotives with substantially longer service lives. So far about 50% of the EU27 lines are electrified.

15.2 Assessment

15.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Until the year 2050 the rate of electrification can probably be expected to rise to a level 75% in line with the current developments. About 80% of all rail freight transport is likely to be transported on electrified rail tracks.

15.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market player affected by this action is the rail freight industry:

• Rail cargo companies would achieve a higher level of fuel and cost effectiveness

• Rail operators would concentrate on e-transport

15.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.14

Table 9.14 Reduction potential – electrification of rail corridors

15.2.4 Pro Arguments

• 35% cheaper to operate than diesels

• Electricity is cheaper than fuel

• Trains are lighter and do less damage to the tracks

• Electric locomotives are cheaper to buy than diesels

• Electric trains emit less carbon

• Regenerative braking enables trains to reuse energy that would have been lost while braking

• Electric trains are quieter than diesel trains

• Improved interoperability

15.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Costs for setting up the infrastructure

• Maintenance of the infrastructure

15.2.6 Conclusion

About 50% of the EU27 lines are electrified and more are to be electrified in the future. Electrification has the main impacts on the environment as it leads to reduced fossil fuel consumptions and GHG emissions.

However infrastructure investments are needed to improve the level of electrification. The European wide electrification of railway lines is

Highly Recommended

15.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

15.3.1 RTD Policy

Research hast to be done concerning uniform electrification systems and/or multisystem locomotives.

• Track access charges for diesel and e-locomotives

• Uniform electrification systems

• Cost-benefit analysis

• Implementation of stricter CO₂ restrictions

• Multisystem locomotives

15.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Impact on CO₂ reduction of passenger and freight transport

• Impact on operational costs

• Multisystem locomotives

15.3.2 Transport Policy

The current governance intention is to foster alternatives to fossil fuels in order to decrease CO₂ emissions.

15.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The electrification of all European rail tracks is recommended. The European Commission should enforce the upgrade of railway tracks.

15.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Introduction of change processes for unification of electrical systems, infrastructural investments and upgrades for electrification.

15.3.3 Milestones

By 2050:

• A full coverage of electrification on European main corridors should be achieved

16 Actions 15 – Longer Trains

• Arne Böhmann &
• Frank Panse 

16.1 Introduction

An action to increase the capacities of rail freight transportation could be the usage of longer trains. However train length restrictions differ in the European countries.

16.2 Assessment

16.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

For example the restrictions on the corridor from Spain to Hungary are as follows: 600 m on the Spanish part, 750 m on the French part, 625 m on the Italian part, 600 m on the Slovenian part and 750 m on the Hungarian part. For this corridor, infrastructural actions would make sense to at least secure uniform restrictions of 750 m. Train lengths of up to 1500 m are imaginable on some corridors in the future. The first step toward upgrading of train lengths therefore is to identify all potential corridors. Longer trains are already common practice on a few routes. In Denmark trains with a length of 835 m are allowed.

16.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market player affected by this action is the rail freight industry:

• Rail cargo companies would prefer if train length restrictions were uniform and extended

• Infrastructure managers would have to create new concepts

• Industries

16.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.15

Table 9.15 Reduction potential – longer trains

16.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Increase of capacity

• Less trains needed to transport the same amount of goods

• Improved interoperability due to uniform restrictions

• Reduction of operational costs, personnel costs and maintenance costs

• Lower fuel consumption per tkm

16.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• More time needed to load and unload the wagons at trans-shipment points

• Possibly decreasing velocity

• Most railway tracks are not adapted to carry longer trains (infrastructural deficits)

• Passing loops that are too short for longer trains

• Trans-shipment stations are not efficient for longer trains

• High investments are required

16.2.6 Conclusion

The implementation of longer trains in Central Europe still is in the early stages of development. However if implemented it leads to higher capacities, reduced fuel consumptions and reduced managing costs. It is clear that the action consumes large infrastructure and train upgrade investments. A first step should be to at least create uniform European wide train lengths to insure interoperability. A cost-benefit analysis is required in advance of the implementation of the action. The FERRMED ASBL is promoting the concept of a high capacity rail freight axis Scandinavia-Rhine-Rhone-Western Mediterranean with the implementation of so called FERRMED Standards, essentially 1500 m trains with up to 25 tonnes axle load on a 8000+ km main network with almost 14000 km feeder lines.

The implementation of longer trains and European wide uniform restrictions is

Recommended

16.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

16.3.1 RTD Policy

Research has to be done concerning infrastructural deficits, bottlenecks and technical obstacles that need to be resolved.

• Track bed

• Trans-shipment stations

• Cost-benefit analysis (Integrated Impact Assessment)

• Logistical concept

• New logistical concepts

• Adoption of infrastructure

16.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Impact on freight train capacities on main line

• Impact on energy consumption

• Running tests with longer trains on current rail freight corridors

16.3.2 Transport Policy

The current status is that train length restrictions range from 600m to 750m in most European countries.

16.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The setting up of uniform train length restrictions on major corridors in Europe is recommended.

16.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

Infrastructural upgrades and investments for the railway networks.

16.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Demonstration projects finalized

• Implementation of trains of 1000m

By 2030:

• Implementation of trains of 1500m

17 Action 16 - Heavier Trains

• Arne Böhmann &
• Frank Panse 

17.1 Introduction

The current common axle load that applies to most of the corridors investigated is 22.5 tonnes per axle (or more in some parts). Most of the rest is on 20 tonnes per axle. The implementation could increase the capacities of rail freight transportation.

17.2 Assessment

The current common axle load that applies to most of the corridors investigated is 22.5 tonnes per axle (or more in some parts). Most of the rest is on 20 tonnes per axle.

17.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Considering the current product mixes observed and considering the expected market trends towards a faster growth of light freight, upgrading the infrastructure on corridors to higher axle load values or simply harmonizing axle loads to 22.5 does not seem absolutely crucial. In cases where infrastructure works are otherwise planned, it is however recommended that the target value should at least be 22.5 tonnes. In the long term, higher axle loads (e.g. 25 tonnes) may also be considered.

Heavier trains are already in use in a few cases. In Germany for example heavy block trains with a gross weight of 6000 tonnes are operated between Hamburg and Salzgitter to transport ore to the steel mill in Salzgitter. These trains have lengths of about 600m and axle loads of 25 tonnes.

17.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are the rail cargo companies:

• Rail cargo companies would prefer if train weight restrictions were uniform and extended

• Infrastructure managers would have to create new concepts

• Industries

17.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.16 Reduction potential – heavier trains

17.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Increase of capacity

• Less trains needed to transport the same amount of goods

• Improved interoperability due to uniform restrictions

• Reduction of operational costs, personnel costs and maintenance costs

• Lower fuel consumption per tkm

17.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• More time needed to load and unload the wagons at trans-shipment points

• Possibly decreasing velocity

• Most railway tracks are not adapted to carry heavier trains (infrastructural deficits)

• Longer braking distances

• Loads depend on gradients

17.2.6 Conclusion

The action consumes large infrastructure and train upgrade investments. A first step should be to at least create uniform European wide weight restrictions to insure interoperability. A cost-benefit analysis is required in advance of the implementation of the action.

The implementation of heavier trains and European wide uniform restrictions is recommended.

17.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

17.3.1 RTD Policy

Research has to be done concerning infrastructural deficits, bottlenecks and technical obstacles that need to be resolved.

• Track bed

• Coupling systems

• Wheel–track interaction

• Cost-benefit analysis (Integrated Impact Assessment)

• Logistical concept

• New rolling stock

• New logistical concepts

• Adaptation of infrastructure

Demonstration Projects:

• Impact on freight train capacities

• Impact on energy consumption

• Running tests with heavier trains on current rail freight corridors

17.3.2 Transport Policy

The current status is that train weight restrictions range from 20t to 22.5t in the European countries.

17.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The setting up of uniform train weight restrictions on major corridors in Europe is recommended.

17.3.2.2 National Transport policy

Infrastructural upgrades and investments for the railway networks.

17.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Demonstration Projects finalized

• Recommendations

• Implementation of trains with 25t axle load

• Increase of tonnes per wagon meter to 8 tonnes

By 2035:

• Implementation of trains with 30t axle load

18 Action 17 – Investments in IWT Infrastructure

• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

18.1 Introduction

The quality of the EU inland waterway network is highly recognized, as well as the fact that IWT is more environmentally friendly than road transport. The share of IWT is nevertheless decreasing over time. To strengthen the competitive position of IWT and to facilitate its integration into intermodal logistics chains, investments in IWT infrastructure have to be made.

Capacity of the IWT network is hampered by bottlenecks. Lack of sufficient investments have led to a reduction of preventive maintenance, unexpected draught restrictions, temporary closure of locks, etc. This results in unreliable services, reduced safety and higher costs.

18.2 Assessment

18.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Since IWT still has capacity that is not fully exploited, its links to other transport systems have to be improved. Favourable conditions are created through improvements in the infrastructure, ITS (including RIS) and implementation of the European action plan on the Promotion of Inland Waterway Transport (NAIADES).

The TEN-T priority axes include two inland waterway connections (nr. 18 and 30). Although the main attention is on these two, 3 other cases are under investigation. This includes the Elbe and Oder rivers in Czech Republic, the Po river basin in Italy and the Terneuzen bottleneck in the Netherlands linking the two priority axes.

18.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected are vessel owners and logistic companies. After all, solving bottlenecks enables improved use of the IWT network. Stable vessel utilization rates lead to improved attractiveness of the IWT sector.

18.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.17 Reduction potential – investments in IWT infrastructure

18.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• The external costs of IWT are 7 times lower per tkm than those of road transport

• IWT is safe, in particular for dangerous goods

• It makes IWT less sensitive to extreme weather (water too high, too low), thus more competitive

18.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Only 12 out of 27 Member States have an interconnected waterway network

• Due to low speed IWT is not suitable for every type for cargo

18.2.6 Conclusion

IWT has major assets relevant for the transport sector; compared to other modes it is effective, energy-efficient and safe. Tackling of bottlenecks, multi-modal links and the implementation of RIS improve the competitive position, resulting in a growth of 1% per year until 2030. However, due to higher percentages in other modes, the modal share is foreseen to decrease from 11.4% in 2005 to 9.6% in 2030 (SSS not included).

Recommended

18.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

18.3.1 RTD Policy

As this action does not depend on the development of new technologies, there is neither need for basic or applied research, nor for demonstration projects.

18.3.2 Transport Policy

In the last decades there has been significant underinvestment in the IWT network. Between 1995 and 2005, the EU invested some €800 billion in infrastructure, of which only 1% was allocated to IWT. IWT freight volume (tonnes) has nevertheless managed to grow by 14.5%, more than any other transport modality.

This underinvestment also shows at national scale. Smaller waterways (classes I–III) are more and more neglected and loose in importance, although they can serve for feeder services from and to ports (“hubs”). This trend will continue unless additional policy initiatives are developed.

18.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Integral investment approach for all modes, taking into account financial, spatial and environmental issues.

• Development plan for the improvement and maintenance of inland waterways and transhipment facilities.

• Integrated network plan that goes beyond the TEN-T axes and takes into account smaller waterways.

18.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• National funding schemes for improvement and maintenance of inland waterways.

• Development of port and transhipment facilities.

• Implementation of RIS and future services in line with RIS Directive.

• Assessing the possibilities of privatisation of canals, including maintenance.

18.3.3 Milestones

By 2020 the following should be achieved

• Completion on the 2 IWT TEN-T axes

• Full-scale implementation of RIS

• IWT infrastructure development plan

• Integral long term Infra funding scheme

19 Action 18 – Develop New Technologies in IWW

• Julia Düh &
• Lucas Weiss 

1. AustriaTech – Federal Agency for Technological Measures, Vienna, Austria

   Lucas Weiss

19.1 Introduction

Inland waterway is characterized by high efficiency and low energy consumption per tkm. Its energy consumption per tkm of transported goods is approximately 17% of that of road transport and 50% of rail transport. Its noise and gaseous emissions are modest. The emissions of restricted pollutants like NOx, PM, CO and HC from the waterway transport are steadily decreasing, because of changing emission standards.

New technologies are needed to fasten the changing of containers between barges, trucks, trains. New technologies will support efficiency, ecological and safety aspects within the whole IWW and SSS system including vessels, engines, infrastructure and cargo handling (Telias et al., 2009).

19.2 Assessment

19.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

For inland waterway and short-sea shipping, it is very essential for Europe to develop innovative and new ideas and technologies for the logistics port structures, lock management and the vessel fleets, to handle the constant growing flow of goods. Some of these ideas and technologies are x-gate vessel tracking systems, the ARROW program, sky sails, and port feeder barge, fuel cells for low emission ships (Fellow-SHIP), Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull (SWATH) and Powered catamarans. (Böhmann et al., 2009)

The Commission aims to create favourable conditions for the further development of the sector through improvements in the infrastructure, intelligent transport systems (including RIS – River Information Services) and implementation of the European action plan on the Promotion of Inland Waterway Transport (NAIADES) (EC - NAIADES, 2006).

19.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players are logistic companies, cargo and vessel/barges owner and infrastructure manager.

19.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.18 Reduction potential – develop new technologies in IWW

19.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• More knowledge about the positioning of other barges

• Fewer fuel consumption because of better planned trips with continuous speed

• Reduction of GHG by implementing new fuel cells

• Reducing time for port stops/stays because of easy cargo handling

• High potential for modal shift of freight

19.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Long time horizon for changing activities because of long life cycle of barges and machines

• High investment costs for new propulsion system in the vessels

19.2.6 Conclusion

New technologies which support efficiency, ecological aspects and safety are applicable for the whole IWW and SSS system, for vessels, engines, infrastructure and cargo handling.

But due to the very long life cycle of barges, vessel and infrastructure new technologies are not diffused within next 20–25 years, but some better techniques can also be applied to existing vessels.

Recommended

19.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

19.3.1 RTD Policy

Barges, vessels and infrastructure have a very long life cycle. Changes to new technologies with the aim to be more environmental friendly require a lot of time, research and investments.

Research has to concentrate on:

• Supporting a diverse set of alternative fuels

• Concept for clean engines and environmental friendly design

Demonstration Projects

• Refitting elements of barges and machines for more environment-friendly engines

• R&D for quicker transfer of containers

19.3.2 Transport Policy

Inland waterway transport plays currently an important role in Germany and the Benelux countries. Related to the GHG emissions of other modes of transport inland waterways are of minor importance in the next decades.

19.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Implementing and improving green corridors: drive on steady speed, alternative fuels

• Taxing fuel/differentiating

19.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• National funding for IWT implementation of new applications

• Implementation of RIS and future services in line with the EU’s RIS Directive.

19.3.3 Milestones

By 2020 the following should be achieved:

• 50% Subsidizing engines (barges, vessels) replacing old engines for new energy-efficient, emission reduction devices

• Implementing alternative fuels (clean, ultra-low sulphur)

By 2050:

• 80% of the barges are replaced by vessels and barges with environmental friendly engines and fuels.

20 Action 19 – Investments in Maritime Port Infrastructure

• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

20.1 Introduction

Today most goods from the Far East arrive in the ports of Northern Europe and are then transported to their final destination across the EU. In the medium- or long-run developments of port infrastructure, hinterland connections and transport networks could bring around a shift of goods flows from the Northern range to the Mediterranean Area.

In 2018 maritime freight volumes are expected to have grown from 3.7 bn tonnes (2006) to 5.3 bn tonnes. In 10 years time EU ports and the shipping industry thus have to be able to handle, at least 1.5 billion tonnes more than today. Investments in port infrastructure are needed to improve efficiency and productivity rates.

20.2 Assessment

20.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The European ports policy stressed the possibility to explore alternative transport routes as a means to achieve a more intensive use of existing ports – some of which are operating under capacity levels. This would lead to a more rational distribution of traffic across the EC, resulting in less tkm and less negative effects linked to freight transport (congestion, road fatalities, emissions etc.). It is however expected that countries in Northern Europe will not support actions stimulating (competitive) ports in other countries, unless they act as feeder for the main ports in the EU. It is expected that countries in Europe will not support actions stimulating (competitive) ports in other countries. Currently, ports are expanding capacity in order to cope with the expected increasing cargo-handling demand after the world wide economic crisis (e.g. Maasvlakte II in Rotterdam).

20.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Ports are a direct and indirect source of more than half a million jobs employees and ensure dynamism and development of regions. Investing in port infrastructure influences shipping and logistic services, including port services, cargo handling, hinterland transport, shipbuilding and other maritime related industries.

20.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.19 Reduction potential – investment in maritime port infrastructure

20.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Short-sea shipping carries 40% of intra-European freight (tonne-km)

• In 10 years ports have to handle 1.5 billion tonnes more than today

• Most ports face bottlenecks and are operating under capacity levels

• SSS requires higher port efficiency and good hinterland accessibility

20.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Individual countries stimulate their own ports because of the economic importance, there is no common interest

• Container vessels prefer to have 1 or 2 calls in EU ports. These market forces should not be forgotten when investing in smaller ports

20.2.6 Conclusion

However, looking ahead, maritime transport is expected to grow again. This means that the maritime infrastructure, including ports and its links to the hinterland has to be improved. Investments in port facilities also have links with other actions including the motorways of the sea and the European maritime transport space without barriers.

Recommended

(Decentralization of ports is not recommended – this is market-driven).

20.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

20.3.1 RTD Policy

Since investments do not depend on the development of new technologies, there is no need for research or demonstration projects. There is need for actions to make ports more efficient, safer and cleaner.

20.3.2 Transport Policy

The EC has described strategic goals and recommendations for its maritime policy until 2018. Future actions should focus on increasing port efficiency and productivity rates, in terms of output or movements per hectare and through improvement of hinterland connections (road, rail and inland waterways).

20.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Adopt transparent guidelines on State aid to ports to promote efficiency and support greener shipping efforts/technological innovation.

• Adopt guidelines on fee structures in order to simulate SSS activities (instead of discouragement).

• Support smaller ports, which act as feeders for the main ports, in order to minimize land transport.

20.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• Harmonize national investment programs with EU port policy.

• National single window concept, dealing with information to and from the national (port) authorities.

20.3.3 Milestones

By 2020 the following should be achieved:

• Expansion of short-sea shipping and motorways of the sea activities (as part of the TEN-T network)

• Full implementation of maritime space without barriers.

• Long-term strategic goals and recommendations for the maritime transport policy (beyond 2018).

21 Action 20 – Training for Eco-driving

• Carina Botoft,
• Søren Saugstrup Nielsen &
• Helena Kyster-Hansen 

21.1 Introduction

The driving style of a truck driver has major impact on the amount of fuel that is used to drive a truck. Several projects on eco-driving have shown that training and education of the truck drivers concerning eco-driving gives reductions in the total diesel consumption for the truck.

From September 2009 all new driving licenses for truck drivers will have elements of eco-driving. All truck drivers with driving licenses taken before September 2009 have to take part in follow up courses, where eco-driving is one of the subjects.

21.2 Assessment

21.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Eco-driving has significant potential to deliver CO₂ reductions quickly and cost-effectively; there appears to be savings potential of 10% of surface transport sector emissions. Immediately after eco-driving training, average fuel economy improvements of between 5–15% have been recorded, for example in the Austrian national program for commercial vehicles, and data on the UK Freight Best Practice program confirms a potential of 10% fuel savings from eco-driving.

The long-term impact seems to be around 2–3% fuel savings with no follow-up incentives program. With implementation of eco-driving courses every fifth year for all truck drivers (which started up September 2009) and with implementation of incentive schemes, savings around 7–8% in fuel reductions should be possible.

21.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Eco-driving is potentially interesting for all commercial partners. It can reduce the cost of transport, by reducing fuel consumption and maintenance costs. It can also reduce GHG emissions, local air pollutants, noise nuisance and the drivers’ stress level.

21.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.20 Reduction potential – training for eco-driving

21.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Projects confirm a potential of 10% fuel savings from eco-driving on short term

• With follow up incentive program 7–8% fuel savings should be possible in long term

• Eco-driving also reduces vehicle maintenance costs, stress, noise nuisance and local air pollutants

• Eco-driving improves traffic safety, comfort

21.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Divers’ travel time increases (But this loss of efficiency is marginal in relation to the potential fuel savings when performing eco-driving)

21.2.6 Conclusion

It is highly recommended to support different strategies to maintain the habit of eco-driving once training is over. IT applications in the trucks supporting eco-driving and incentive schemes for hauliers and truck drivers should be available and easy to apply all over Europe.

Highly Recommended

21.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

21.3.1 RTD Policy

There is a need for the following research actions:

• Development of technology for improving eco-driving, e.g. eco-meters

• Eco-driving should be combined with the actions of “defensive driving” (driving to save lives, time and money, in spite of the conditions around you and the actions of others).

• Collect evidence on eco-driving and defensive driving, promote and provide information on the positive effects to stakeholders, including good practice guide.

• Investigate how to transfer eco-driving to rail and sea transport

21.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

There are already some demonstration projects on eco-driving in different member states, but there is a need for demonstration projects in combination with defensive driving.

21.3.2 Transport Policy

The EU driver education, with a module on eco-driving should be implemented from 10/10/2009 for all truck drivers in Europe. From here on all new driving licenses will have a module on eco-driving and all truck drivers, both new and experienced, are required to take part in follow up courses every fifth year.

21.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

The directive on driver education has been implemented differently in the member states and this affects the competition. There is a need for co-ordination of the regulations by the EU.

21.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

The member states should implement the directive and ensure the enforcement thereof.

21.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• A directive combining eco-driving and defensive should be implemented, together with EU-wide harmonization of implementation.

By 2035:

• All other modes should have an implemented EU directive on training in eco-driving

In a longer perspective the effect of eco-driving is small since it only creates a “one off saving” that demands continuous training to keep and further savings largely depends on development of new technology in other areas.

22 Action 21 – Automated Platooning

• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

22.1 Introduction

Automated platooning refers to the situation in which trucks are coupled electronically and exchange information, but still need drivers that can intervene if needed. At this moment driving behind another vehicle, at a distance that does not guarantee that stopping to avoid a collision is possible, is called tailgating. This is illegal, currently preventing platooning of vehicles. The time in which fully automated “hands-off” trucks will be running on our highways is still far from now; nevertheless automatic guidance (platooning) is a key objective if we want to improve safety and efficiency of road transport. Within this project the term platooning refers to the situation in which trucks are coupled electronically and exchange information, but still need drivers that can intervene when needed.

22.2 Assessment

22.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Different EU funded projects have studied the potential of vehicle-to-vehicle communication, showing that platooning is technically feasible. The system allows vehicles to drive closer to one another, increasing the potential of highways and resulting in less drag for the followers (resulting in 10% to 20% less fuel consumption). It also provides the vehicles and drivers with critical and real-time information well in advance as compared to human natural senses or existing electronic tools, hereby reducing the chance on road fatalities. However, to be really effective all vehicles should be with V2VC systems.

22.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are hauliers, vehicle suppliers and private car drivers:

• Hauliers will benefit from improved safety and reduced costs. New driving time and rest periods may improve efficiency.

• Private car drivers will experience the comfort of hands-off driving during inter-urban travel.

• For vehicle suppliers it is uncertain whether the costs of the technology will be covered.

22.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.21 Reduction potential – automated platooning

22.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Improvement of traffic flows

• Increased safety due to automated guidance and reduced workload

• Lower fuel consumption (10% to 20%) for the followers

• Reduced environmental impacts

• More efficient use of infrastructure

22.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Conventional traffic reduces the potential of the system

• There are technical issues and legal hindrances

• System only provides benefits for followers, not for the leader

• Trucks (and cars) need to be equipped with V2VC systems

• Acceptance by truck drivers is unknown

• Bridges, tunnels etc. may prevent the system to be used optimally – thus reducing the benefits

22.2.6 Conclusion

Although the technology has been demonstrated in closed environments, it has not yet been implemented in real-life. The system is not designed to coexist with conventional vehicle traffic on existing highways. Finally it should be stated that there is not enough data available regarding costs and benefits to describe the potential on the four areas under investigation within the FREIGHTVISION project.

Recommended

22.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

22.3.1 RTD Policy

Although the technology required has been demonstrated in closed environments, still much needs to be done.

• Develop and integrate technologies (ADAS, collision warning, V2V and V2I communication, location based services etc.) in a prototype service.

• Develop strategies on how automated guided trucks (and private vehicles) can operate on EU highways without changing road infrastructure.

22.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Demonstrate in real-life the operational aspects of platooning and the influence of platooning on congestion, safety, fuel efficiency and CO₂ emissions and assess the need for dedicated infrastructure.

22.3.2 Transport Policy

22.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Set standards for the platooning communication system, to be used across the EU by all vehicle suppliers.

• Update Regulation EC/561/2006, setting new rules for driving times and rest periods regarding platooning vehicles.

22.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• Setting rules for the allowance of platooning on (specific part of) the road network.

22.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Demonstration projects, national legislation and EC regulation.

• Platooning introduced on specific roads in 2020 and beyond.

By 2035:

• Platooning allowed on all EU highways in 2035 (freight and passengers).

• First vehicles without drivers and start of ‘intelligent cargo’ in 2035.

23 Action 22 – Standardized Loading Units

• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

23.1 Introduction

Current multitude of different transport configurations creates friction costs and unnecessary delays in handling operations between transport modes. Standardizing an EU loading unit could offer a solution by combining the benefits of containers and those of swap bodies. This EU Intermodal Loading Unit (EILU) should be able to move freely in all modes of transport and between them in order to ensure maximum co-modality.

23.2 Assessment

23.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The EILU could bring improvements in terminal productivity, primarily through more efficient use of handling equipment. However, the existing loading units have been developed for different kinds of goods. While a standardized loading unit may simplify trans-shipment operations, the specific advantages of specialized units would be lost. This could lead to a modal shift back to the road where such specialized equipment would most probably still be offered. It also requires investments in new loading units. Overall, it is not yet certain the effects are beneficial for society as a whole.

23.2.2 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.22 Reduction potential – standardized loading units

23.2.3 Pro Arguments:

• The EILU combines the benefits of both containers and swap bodies

• Trans-shipment between modes would be simplified

• Efficiency benefits in logistics may be obtained

23.2.4 Contra Arguments:

• New container standards should be taken at international level

• Operators, terminals and transporters have to adapt their equipment to the new EILU

• In the transition period two sizes will have to coexist next to each other, increasing logistic costs

23.2.5 Conclusion

An update on the 2003 proposal on the EILU was scheduled for 2008. However, no significant progress has been made so far. When designing a new intermodal loading unit, the Commission should not ignore the standards employed outside the EU and units employed in deep-sea trade. Moreover, the specific advantages of current loading units will be lost by the introduction of the EILU. These possible negative consequences should therefore be examined in detail.

Not Recommended

24 Action 23 – E-freight

• Ronald Jorna &
• Hans Zuiver 

24.1 Introduction

E-freight helps to promote co-modality by providing dynamic multi-modal door-to-door travel information, minimizing paperwork and unproductive repetitive processes, lowering costs and making co-modal solutions more effective and therefore more competitive. It denotes the vision of a paper-free, electronic flow of information associating the physical flow of goods with a paperless trail built by ICT.

24.2 Assessment

24.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The e-Freight concept was included in the Freight Logistics Action Plan of 2007 and the ITS Action Plan of 2009. On short term a research project on e-freight will start, completing the jigsaw of research done so fare. It will also develop the e-freight roadmap and coordinate the research outputs to that end.

A number of obstacles still need to be overcome, including the insufficient standardization of the respective information exchanges and market actors’ disparate capabilities to use ICT. It should also be noticed that for transport service providers the advantages in advertising services on the Internet using the e-freight concept do not automatically outweigh the disadvantages of competitors being able to see the services offered.

It is however expected that the socio-economic benefits (productivity and logistics costs) outweigh the business disadvantages of specific companies.

24.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

With the help of e-freight:

• Shippers, freight forwarders etc. are able to identify and use direct or combined transport services most suited for their purpose;

• Transport service providers can exchange information electronically with actors across the different modes;

• Infrastructure providers are able to facilitate the best possible use of infra by providing information about the available transport infrastructure and how to use it.

24.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.23 Reduction potential – e-freight

24.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• It helps to make logistics processes more efficient

• It helps to encourage customers trust in co-modality

• It supports the single transport document

• Compared to other actions, it is a relative simple and inexpensive action

24.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• A number of technical obstacles need to be overcome

• Transport operators need to adapt existing information systems

• Transport companies are not in favour of market transparency

24.2.6 Conclusion

Positive impacts on GHG emissions, congestion and road fatalities are expected (indirect through modal shift), but no quantitative figures can be given at this moment.

Highly Recommended

24.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

24.3.1 RTD Policy

ITS technologies are essential for the implementation of e-freight. To establish a roadmap for the development of an integrated ICT application, the following research is needed.

• Platform to support the design, development, deployment and maintenance of e-freight solutions for all modes.

• Interoperability and standardization of e-freight services.

• Dissemination of best practices

24.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

Identification of e-freight services, development of actions and translation of project results in business cases.

24.3.2 Transport Policy

The e-freight concept was included in the Freight Logistics Action Plan of 2007. The ITS Action Plan stressed the importance of ITS applications for freight transport and in particular e-freight. The EU Parliament approved this plan in April 2009.

24.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• Development of a Roadmap for the adoption of e-freight, identifying the problem areas where action such as standardization is required.

• Proposal for a uniform ICT platform (single-window) to be used by stakeholders on a voluntary base.

• Strong support for standardization.

24.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• Harmonization of e-freight related tools used already across the different transport modes.

24.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• RTD and demonstration projects finalized by 2015

• E-freight platform fully operational and accessible by all stakeholders by 2020.

25 Action 24 – Network Optimization – Cargo Owner

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg &
• Heidrun Rosič 

1. Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria

   Gerhard Bauer, Werner Jammernegg & Heidrun Rosič

25.1 Introduction

Strategic network design deals with the number, location and function of the facilities of a cargo owner and therewith mainly determines a company’s transport demand. Two main possibilities in order to counteract congestion and CO₂ emissions are onshoring and flexible supply base. Whereas onshoring means to relocate production closer to the demanding unit, flexible supply base is a mixed version of off- and onshoring. It provides on the one hand the possibility to serve the basic demand from an offshore facility and on the other hand the company is flexible enough to react to demand fluctuations and disruptions like delivery delays due to, for example, congestion.

25.2 Assessment

25.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

In the long run companies will have to re-evaluate their network design because of a number of reasons. First of all, regulations of carbon emissions are getting tighter. Secondly, companies have to respond to higher and more volatile fuel prices. Thirdly, evolving customer awareness might lead to a partially switch of demand to companies which supply products with a desirable carbon footprint. Finally, the increasing importance of “soft” factors, like delivery time, flexibility and risk already forces companies to build production facilities closer to the market. The World Economic Forum agreed on a worldwide reduction potential of 5 MT of CO₂ for nearshoring.

25.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are cargo owners, logistics service providers and consumers:

• Cargo owners will adjust their network design in order to reach their strategic objectives. Nevertheless, policy actions which favour onshoring and flexible supply base might increase costs and, therefore, might encounter resistance. –

• Logistics service providers: If the redesign of the cargo owner’s network results in the reduction of the transport distance the demand for this service goes down. Therefore, adjustments of cargo owners aiming at a reduction of CO₂ go to the expense of logistics service providers’ demand. –

• Consumers: Network Optimization should lead to the reduction of CO₂ emissions. Assuming that consumer awareness increases with respect to the environment they will honour the cargo owner’s actions. But if the actions are accompanied by an increase of prices their positive attitude will diminish. – to +

25.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.24 Reduction potential – network optimisation – cargo owner

25.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Significant reduction of overseas transport demand

• Reduced utilization of the main road corridors

• Reduced utilization of the main terminals and ports

• Increased flexibility to react to disruptions, like delivery delays due to congestion

25.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Huge investments

• Long-term switch of paradigm

• Highly dependent on preconditions (tighter regulations, higher oil price, customer awareness)

• Increased costs (e.g. wages)

25.2.6 Conclusion

The preconditions are very likely and therefore companies will in the long run have to re-evaluate their network design. Nearshoring and flexible supply base are suitable to improve a company’s carbon footprint even if the potential calculated by the World Economic Forum is not very high.

Nevertheless, due to the fact that transcontinental transport is excluded the action has limited impact on the key indicators as they are defined in FREIGHTVISION and therefore is not highly recommended, but recommended.

25.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

25.3.1 RTD Policy

No new technologies are necessary for network optimization. Consequently, there is no need for basic and applied research and demonstration projects.

25.3.2 Transport Policy

An increase in transport costs favours a location closer to the market. This is due to the fact that the advantages of offshoring (e.g. low labour costs) diminish as the costs of transport get higher.

Policy actions have to be set on a European level. They have to directly address the CO₂ emissions caused by transport. Two opportunities of transport policy actions would therefore be the integration of transport in the EU Emission Trading Scheme or a toll considering mileage and engine efficiency as discussed in the Netherlands.

25.3.3 Milestones

Network optimization from a cargo owner’s perspective is mainly linked to actions increasing the transport costs like Internalization of external costs and taxation of fossil fuels. The actions would partially diminish the advantage of low labour costs and would, therefore, favour onshoring and flexible supply base.

Additionally, network optimization is linked to the introduction of a standardized CO₂ Label. A current study has shown that a label could have a significant influence on the consumers’ brand choice.

26 Action 25 – Network Optimization – Logistics Service Provider

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg &
• Heidrun Rosič 

26.1 Introduction

Network optimization from a logistics service provider’s perspective deals with the number and location of inventory facilities. In order to reduce the distance to the customer, this action intends to counteract the prevailing logistics trend of centralization. A logistics service provider mainly considers storage and trans-shipment centres in designing its network. They have to choose between a centralized and a decentralized distribution and procurement network. Of course, cargo owners, as well, have to bear these decisions in mind when they perform their procurement, distribution and storage tasks in-house.

26.2 Assessment

26.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

In the last decade, the trade-off between transport and inventory costs often led to the centralization of inventories as the transport costs were negligible and “soft” factors like, for instance, delivery reliability were not considered (McKinnon and Forster 2000, p.7). This advantage might change soon as companies face higher and more volatile fuel prices. Furthermore, tighter regulations of carbon emissions and evolving customer awareness might force companies to include environmental key figures like the carbon footprint in their network design decisions and therewith decentralization will be favoured. A US company from the apparel industry, for example, decreased their CO₂ emissions by 25% by opening two additional distribution centres (Simchi-Levi 2008).

26.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Logistics service providers, cargo owners and consumers are the most relevant market players affected by the action network optimization from the perspective of a logistics service provider:

• Logistics service providers: The implementation of the action implies additional costs for further storage facilities and the needed workforce. Nevertheless, shorter distances to the customer increase the transport reliability and therewith improve the performance. – to ±

• Cargo owner: Similarly to the logistics service providers, a cargo owner might also face higher transport costs but on the other hand improves its customer performance. – to ±

• Consumers demand products with a lower carbon footprint. This is triggered by increasing customer awareness. However, as additional costs might incur the price might also go up. ±

26.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.25 Reduction potential – network optimization – logistics service provider

26.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Significant reduction of transport demand

• Increased flexibility to react to changes of customer demand

• Reduced utilization of overloaded terminals and links

26.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Huge investment

• Highly dependent on preconditions (tighter regulations, higher oil price, customer awareness)

• Increased inventory costs

26.2.6 Conclusion

If the preconditions are fulfilled the huge initial investments will be justified within a short period of time. Decentralization is a very effective way to reduce CO₂ emissions. But it is also a very good action to reduce the utilization of overloaded terminals and corridors.

As a result, decentralization is highly recommended as a long-term action.

26.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

26.3.1 RTD Policy

No new technologies are necessary for network optimization. Consequently, there is no need for basic and applied research and demonstration projects.

26.3.2 Transport Policy

An increase in transport costs favours the decentralization of inventories. This is due to the fact that the pooling effect of inventory aggregation diminishes as the costs of transport increase.

Policy actions have to directly address the CO₂ emissions caused by transport and they have to be introduced on an European level. Two opportunities of transport policy actions would therefore be the integration of transport in the EU Emission Trading Scheme or a mileage dependent toll considering the CO₂ emissions of different engines as discussed in the Netherlands.

26.3.3  

27 Action 26 – CO₂ Labels

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg &
• Heidrun Rosič 

27.1 Introduction

A CO₂-label is a tag on a product to inform the customer about a product’s carbon footprint. The carbon footprint is defined as the “total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by an individual, event, organization or product expressed as CO₂-equivalents” (Carbon Trust 2009). It is aimed to be calculated in accordance with international standardized rules and therewith enables the customer to choose the product not only on the basis of price but also based on its climate impact.

27.2 Assessment

27.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

At the moment, numerous initiatives by public or private companies, for instance, in Austria, UK and France are under way in order to provide reliable environmental information to consumers. Walkers, a British company producing crisps, already adopted the carbon reduction label of carbon trust. Two surveys conducted after the carbon reduction label was launched in July 2007 show that consumers react in a positive way and seem to use the information properly to reduce the carbon footprint of their regular shopping items (Carbon Trust 2008). Furthermore, almost half of the people surveyed said that the label changed their perception of Walkers in a positive way. Nevertheless, a carbon label has to be regulated by law. Otherwise, a comparable CO₂-label would only be adopted by the best performing company.

27.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The CO₂ label affects the consumers and all companies in a supply chain.

• Cargo owners bare the costs of using more expensive but more environmental friendly resources. Nevertheless, best performer and first mover can gain a marketing advantage. Consequently, a CO₂ Label might lead to increasing sales. − to +

• All companies in the supply chain are forced to improve their own carbon performance in order to reduce a product’s carbon footprint. − to +

• Consumers have the possibility to choose products with regards to their carbon footprint. Prices might increase as the costs of more environmentally conscious strategies might be reflected in the price. − to +

27.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.26 Reduction potential – CO₂ labels

27.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Important prerequisite for companies to act in favour of the environment

• Increases customer awareness

• Comparability of goods on the basis of environmental impact

27.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Requires standardization

• High costs of implementation

• Need for traceable calculation methodology

• Missing reliability of not standardized and certified labels

• Need for legal obligation

27.2.6 Conclusion

The CO₂-Label will still take some time (up to 20 years) to develop its impact on customer demand. But it is a very important prerequisite to encourage companies to act in favour of the environment and to adopt actions like “network optimization”, “intermodal transport”, “transport consolidation/cooperation” and “transport route planning and control”.

Highly recommended,

as it is a prerequisite to encourage companies to act in favour of the environment.

27.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

27.3.1 RTD Policy

The methodology to calculate a product’s carbon footprint has to be standardized. This has to be done on an EU-wide (supported by CEN) or even global level (supported by ISO)

The standardized methodology defined in previous steps has to be implemented in integrated information systems.

27.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

Implementation of the CO₂ Label in certain regions for certain groups of products.

27.3.2  

27.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• The demonstration projects and the standardization process should be finished.

• The legal obligation should also be set until 2020.

28 Action 27 – Intermodal Transport

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg,
• Heidrun Rosič,
• Olaf Meyer-Rühle &
• Kristin Stefan 

28.1 Introduction

More than 80% of the European freight transport is carried by trucks (short sea shipping excluded). This is due to a number of reasons, like speed, flexibility and dense road infrastructure. Nevertheless, road is certainly not environmental friendly compared to rail and inland waterways. Therefore, a number of efforts were taken by the European Union and national governments to promote intermodal transport which means that transport is carried out by at least two modes. One example is Marco Polo, a funding program of the European Union for projects which are intended to shift transport from road to rail, inland waterways and sea. But the feasibility of intermodal transport (IMT) depends on the transported products and their industry, as well as the different characteristics (speed, flexibility, reliability, network density etc.) of road, rail and inland waterway (IWW). Today the largest problems of IMT are the slowness and inflexibility/unreliability of rail and IWW, bottlenecks in terminal capacity, inefficiency of trans-shipment technology as well as information gaps concerning existing advantages and applications of IMT (Schmidt and Kille 2008, pp. 53).

28.2 Assessment

28.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

A company has to rethink its modal choice due to tighter regulations and higher and more volatile fuel prices. Nevertheless, intermodal transport is often not preferred by companies as it might have a significant negative impact on the delivery time and flexibility of a company due to, for instance, the long and unpredictable terminal transit times (de Brito et al., 2008). Additionally, it has to be kept in mind that the main constraining factor for intermodal transport is the lack of infrastructure. For example semi-trailers and other types of consolidated loads are prerequisites but only 2% of them are equipped for intermodal transport (Savelsberg 2008, p.19). Furthermore, the remaining capacity of the rail network is quite low.

28.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Shippers and all actors in the logistics chain are concerned with this action.

• Shippers may impose less restrictive time windows in order to allow more (energy and environmentally) efficient transport chains.

• For freight forwarders/logistics companies, an increased share of IMT means more planning due to more complex transport chains.

• Shippers and carriers can take advantage of decreasing environmental impact of their transport activities.

28.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.27 Reduction potential – intermodal transport

28.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Reduced utilization on main road corridors

• Increased use of more environmental friendly modes

• Significant reductions of GHG

28.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Lacking capacity of trans-shipment terminals

• Huge investments in capacity of rail network required

• Time losses due to lacking interoperability between certain European countries (rail)

• Reduced flexibility

• Longer delivery times

28.2.6 Conclusion

Numerous efforts were taken by the European Union and national governments to increase the share of intermodal transport. Nevertheless, huge investments in infrastructure (terminals, networks, compatible vehicles) would be necessary to improve the performance of intermodal transport.

As it has a huge impact on CO₂ emissions and road congestion, these investments might be justified and we, therefore, highly recommend this action.

28.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

28.3.1 RTD Policy

All technologies that are needed to operate IMT exist already and have been tested successfully in several demonstration projects. Even programs to promote Intermodal Transport were set up. But it could be helpful to deal with questions of missing IT interfaces/links as well as the automation of trans-shipments.

28.3.2 Transport Policy

Because environmental aspects become more and more important the European Union as well as EU Member States took efforts to promote IMT. There are political objectives of transport policy (see White Paper) but there are no laws or directives to enforce IMT.

28.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

Strengthening/extension of the Marco Polo program and an optimized strategy of investments in terminals and transloading units across Europe.

28.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

National logistics action plans to strengthen intermodal transport.

28.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• 50% of sea container transport over 500 km will be by rail or IWW.

By 2035:

• 75% of sea container transport over 500 km will be by rail or IWW.

By 2050:

• 90% of sea container transport over 500 km will be by rail or IWW.

29 Action 28 – Transport Consolidation and Cooperation

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg &
• Heidrun Rosič 

29.1 Introduction

Transport consolidation and cooperation means to merge deliveries in order to improve performance actions like the load factor or empty runs. This is often done by third party logistics which have the possibility to consolidate shipments of different companies. Alternatively, companies can cooperate on an individual basis in order to increase transport efficiency and therewith reduce costs and environmental impact.

29.2 Assessment

29.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Transport consolidation and cooperation is an action which can be implemented within a very short period of time, especially when third party logistics are involved. Furthermore, a company can save money as the number of trucks needed is reduced.

A good example for consolidation is the European company Teleroute (2009). It offers a variety of freight exchange solutions in order to increase the utilization of trucks. The companies can connect to a common database, which is updated in real time, and thereby match freight with available vehicle space.

29.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are cargo owners, logistics service providers and consumers:

• Cargo owner: A cargo owner increases its load factor and reduces empty runs. Furthermore, not fully loaded trucks are shared with other companies. Consequently, a cargo owner reduces its transport costs. Nevertheless, sharing transport units also implies the sharing of information. This might hinder the implementation of the action especially when competing companies could share transport. − to +

• Logistics service providers: Consolidated shipments increase the load factor. As the price which has to be paid for this service remains, a logistics service provider’s profit margin increases. +

• Consumers: The reduction of transport costs for cargo owners might be reflected in the price. +

29.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.28 Reduction potential – transport consolidation and cooperation

29.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Increased load factor, less empty runs less traffic

• Reduction of transport costs

• Implementation within a very short period of time

29.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Possible impact on key indicators highly depends on industry

• Increased administration costs

29.2.6 Conclusion

Transport consolidation and cooperation can be implemented in a very short period of time. Furthermore, it mostly leads to a reduction of costs. It has a big potential to improve the key indicators as the average load factor is less than 50% and almost a quarter of all trucks are running empty. Nevertheless, the potential must not be overestimated as some trucks are not compatible with certain goods. A case study analyzing a British food supply chain, for instance, shows that the potential to reduce empty runs for goods needing special refrigerated trucks is not more than 2% (McKinnon and Ge 2006).

Nevertheless, as cost and CO₂ emissions can be reduced, this action is highly recommended.

29.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

29.3.1 RTD Policy

Improvements in order to provide data security for competing companies which merge their transports have to be achieved.

29.3.2 Transport Policy

Several transport policy action can be set on national and/or European level in order to favour transport consolidation and cooperation. Empty runs or even not fully loaded trucks could be punished with a penalty fee. Alternatively, transport could be integrated in the EU Emission Trading Scheme. Finally, a mileage dependent toll considering the CO₂ emissions of different engines as discussed in the Netherlands would also favour the implementation of this action.

29.3.3  

30 Action 29 – Transport Route Planning and Control

• Gerhard Bauer,
• Werner Jammernegg &
• Heidrun Rosič 

30.1 Introduction

Transport route planning and control includes two types of decisions, first, to find in advance the optimal route between a facility and the demanding unit (including information about frequently congested corridors) and second, real-time route planning based on information about disruptions on certain links, like congestion and road fatalities. These decisions are supported by certain applications of advanced planning systems and by GPS-based navigation systems in combination with real-time information through traffic message channels.

30.2 Assessment

30.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The diffusion of advanced planning systems (APS) and GPS-based navigation systems increases. If APS remain expensive, the diffusion will not grow in the same pace as navigation systems which have already got standard equipment in new vehicles. A case study carried out in a Swedish city called Lund found out that rerouting based on real-time information of traffic disturbances not only saved fuel but also time (~ 15%, Ericsson et. Al. 2006). As a result, companies are able to avoid congestion and reduce their carbon footprint.

30.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Logistics service providers and consumers are the most relevant market players affected by the action transport route planning and control:

• Logistics service providers: Implementing transport route planning and control reduces the transport distance and the time stuck in congestion. Consequently, the reliability of delivery and delivery times increase, while the transport costs decrease. ++

• Consumers: The action improves a company’s customer performance without the need to increase the price ++

30.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.29 Reduction potential – transport route planning and control

30.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Technology already available

• GPS using TMC almost standard

• Significant influence on CO₂ emissions and congestion

30.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Probably high implementation cost, depending on technology used

• Depends on the diffusion and quality of the traffic message channels

30.2.6 Conclusion

Transport route planning and control will play a big role, especially until 2020, for reducing a company’s carbon footprint, as it can be implemented within a very short period of time and the necessary technologies are widely available. It has a remarkable influence on the key indicators, especially on CO₂ emissions. However, the utilization of stressed links decreases as well because the vehicles get rerouted based on real-time information about disturbances.

Highly recommended, as it can be implemented ad hoc and the necessary technologies are widely available.

30.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

30.3.1 RTD Policy

Improving software solutions in order to display available real-time data on disturbed links.

Integration of planning and control software as recent data on congestion used in transport control devices should also influence the transport route planning.

Integration of all modes in transport route planning and control software.

30.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

Evaluation of the impact of more precise real-time information on the length and duration of congestion.

30.3.2 Transport Policy

The foreseen mileage dependent toll in the Netherlands is to be calculated on the basis of information provided by GPS sensors in passenger and freight vehicles. These sensors could be used in order to calculate the distance travelled as well as to determine the utilization of the roads.

30.3.3 Milestones

The integration of planning and control software should be finished by 2020. The availability of the needed data on congestion highly depends on the development of ITS. As this process should be finished by 2035, the implementation of the demonstration projects should also be finished by 2035.

31 Action 30 – Taxation of Fossil Fuels

• David Bonilla &
• Nihan Akyelken 

31.1 Introduction

Fuel taxes generally increase as oil price falls, and fall when oil price rises; this is called the fiscal drag. Fuel taxes can also work as revenue raising devices, pollution abatement ones and in general as a way to internalize externalities. Diesel taxes are around 70% of final (tax inclusive; based on IEA, 2008) diesel price. This final price is the retail price to freight companies or consumers.

The action is a hybrid approach involving: direct CO₂ taxes and CO₂ trading scheme of LDFT (all market-based). This will favour adoption of low carbon fuels and reduce fossil fuel use of LDFT.

31.2 Assessment

31.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Higher taxes on fuel may affect employment, on the one hand, by raising fuel cost of freight companies engaged in LDFT. The economic feasibility of a fuel tax depends on four areas: competitiveness, harmonization efforts, of fuel tax, within the EU, employment and the CO₂ tax architecture.

31.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Logistics and freight companies and vehicle suppliers are negatively affected by the action, whereas treasury/inland revenue services and infrastructure operators should benefit from the action through increased revenue for public investment.

31.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.30 Reduction potential – taxation of fossil fuels

31.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Targets production chain early on

• Provides incentive to producers and consumers alike to cut fuel use

• Fully comprehensive: covers truck makers, freight companies and the like.

• Compensates the losers (truck fleets with high energy intensity)

31.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• An imperfect price instrument as it is mixed up with a massive transfer of financial resources

• Lack of agreement on how heavily fossil fuel (or CO₂) should be taxed among EU27 Governments of Member States

• Fails to give certainty on how the reduction in CO₂ will be

31.2.6 Conclusion

Taxes impact on fuel prices sending the right signals to producers to act and to internalize the externality. The effect will be lower on congestion and on road fatalities. Ideally taxes should be set according to the level of environmental damage that each of fossil fuel generates. This, however, is not the case in the EU27. For example, taxes on coal are lower than taxes on oil and coal is the least heavily taxed in the EU.

Recommended

31.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

31.3.1 RTD Policy

• Research on the effects of carbon tax on new truck markets, on consumers of fuel and modal split and on CO₂ emissions of truck fleets as well as research on price elasticity.

• The increased fossil fuel taxes inside the EU27 Member States shall be used for RTD subsidies.

31.3.2 Transport Policy

In the EU27, taxes are not set according to the level of environmental damage that each of fossil fuel generates. For example, taxes on coal are lower than taxes on oil and coal is the least heavily taxed in the EU.

31.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

EU transport policy will have to adapt to (1) EU climate policy targets and (2) actions adopted under a quantitative agreement (Kyoto/Copenhagen style) of CO₂ emissions. The action should apply to all fossil fuels sold in the freight transport sector and to fuel use. Hundred percent revenue recycling is also important. A potential action plan for carbon trading (operating as a fuel tax) related to transport would be:

• Determine (1) who trades CO₂ of LDFT, (2) the CO₂ emissions cap and set a long-term CO₂ reduction target for the scheme

• Require companies and government agencies to collect data on CO₂ within their supply chain of LDFT movements

• Harmonize CO₂ tax levels for all transport fuels used for transport in EU region.

31.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• A price for CO₂ has been set

• It has been decided who (vehicle maker or freight com.) trades CO₂;

• Emissions allocation among EU-27 nations has been determined

By 2035:

• CO₂ emissions cap for LDFT has been further tightened.

• The losers of the fuel tax and CO₂ tax are compensated.

32 Action 31 – Hydrogen Infrastructure

• Julia Düh &
• Tuomas Mattila 

1. SYKE – The Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finnland

   Tuomas Mattila

32.1 Introduction

The production, storage and the distribution of hydrogen for long-distance freight transport has a considerable potential but needs further research. Significant improvements in the production of hydrogen from renewable sources are needed to avoid negative impacts on GHG emissions.

There are several technological options to produce, store and use hydrogen in transport. However, for heavy duty long distance freight transport, compressed hydrogen (CGH₂) and liquid hydrogen (LH₂) have too low energy density for internal combustion engines and complex storage. Therefore fuel cells are a prerequisite for hydrogen use (OECD, 2006).

32.2 Assessment

32.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

No OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturer) are currently considering developing H₂ internal combustion engine for HGVs. However, over the past decades there have been numerous high profile fleet trials of H₂ buses (e.g. HyFLEET:CUTE project) (src.: Global Hydrogen Bus Platform).

The use of hydrogen as an energy source for long distance freight transport can reduce GHG emissions and fossil fuel share but only if the hydrogen production is not gas or coal-based.

Many activities are under way, such as Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Initiative (FCH) (2008–2017) funded by the European Community and private sector. Other activities include such as Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Initiative (FCH) with budget (2008–2017) € 1.0 billion (European Community: € 0.5 billion, Private sector: € 0.5 billion) the project HyWAYS (EU-funded project assessing hydrogen’s potential socioeconomic impacts) showed that Up-front costs would need to be balanced against savings from replacing conventional fuel and vehicles, with a break-even point expected between 2025 and 2035 (EU-Focus, 2009).

32.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are

• Vehicle suppliers +

• Electricity companies and energy supplier +

• Developers of fuel cells +

• Road logistic and freight transport companies +

• Rail companies –

• Infrastructure operators –

• Oil companies –

32.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.31 Reduction potential – hydrogen infrastructure

32.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• CO₂ emission are near zero as hydrogen is a non-carbon fuel

• Future technologies may reduce the costs of hydrogen production

• Reduction of the total oil consumption of the road transport sector, if the hydrogen is not produced out of coal

32.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Hydrogen production far away from being commercially viable

• Storage of LH₂ implicates boil off problem, safety impacts unknown

• Lack of infrastructure for refueling hydrogen vehicles limits the uptake and use of H₂ technology

• Requires new infrastructure

32.2.6 Conclusion

The production, storage and the distribution of hydrogen for long distance freight transport is far from being commercially available. Significant improvements in the production of hydrogen are needed to avoid negative impacts on GHG emissions. This action is recommended if no fossil fuel is used for producing hydrogen.

(Not) Recommended

32.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

32.3.1 RTD Policy

Demand for research concerning the improvement of hydrogen production and the application of hydrogen fuel cells for LDFT:

• Integrated impact assessment (Cost-benefit analysis)

• Technology assessment

• Concept for the production and storage of hydrogen for LDFT

• Green corridor for testing alternative mobility

32.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• R&D hydrogen fuel cell – energy density

• Energy density hydrogen storage – Demonstration: different fuel cell

• Hydrogen heavy duty vehicle with hydrogen storage

• Demonstration of low cost zero-carbon hydrogen production

32.3.2 Transport Policy

The current governance regime is that hydrogen infrastructure is a desirable aim but only on the long term.

32.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

Strengthening the activities which are supported by the automotive industry and the EC such as Joint Technology Initiatives (JTI).

32.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• CO₂ free hydrogen products portfolio should be available. Beginning of building up a wide hydrogen infrastructure

• 100,000 cars and busses over life cycle commercially available

• the FC implementation should be achieved

• Infrastructure development driven by passenger transport, full coverage up to 2020 (in Germany)

• Green corridor implemented as a test bed for alternative mobility

By 2035:

• Hydrogen usable for road freight

By 2050:

• Full FC in HDV has very low probability

33 Action 32 – Improved Batteries (Energy Storage)

• Riina Antikainen &
• Tuomas Mattila 

1. SYKE – The Finnish Environment Institute, Helsinki, Finnland

   Riina Antikainen

33.1 Introduction

The aim of improved batteries is to facilitate electric power use in heavy trucks, which is currently limited by the low energy density of present batteries. Very high efficiency of the electric engine provides great potential for reducing the energy demand of road transport.

The low energy density, low durability and high cost of current batteries prevent the use of all-electric trucks. However the field is under research and some promising prototypes have been proposed. These include nanowired lithium batteries for size reduction, specialty coating for shorter recharging periods and the development of high capacity ultracapacitors. (Chan et al., 2008; Kang et al., 2006)

33.2 Assessment

33.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Light electric trucks and vans are already used in delivery by companies such as UPS and TNT. In addition they have been introduced to short distance, heavy duty transport in ports and airports. However the low-energy density of the lead acid battery and the high cost of the lithium ion battery have limited their use in long distance heavy transport, where the amount of energy stored on board is significant. Nanowired lithium batteries and ultracapacitors solve this problem, but they are not yet commercially produced. The nanowired lithium batteries are based on conventional electronics and could be commercial in a few years. The first commercial electric vehicles based on ultracapacitors are planned to be released this year. If the vehicles could be charged during operation (i.e. through induction charging or by overhead cables) the size of batteries could be reduced considerably.

33.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Electric propulsion will result in reduced operating costs for road logistics and freight transport companies. In addition vehicle suppliers and electricity companies will benefit from increased demand. Rail companies will suffer from increased competition through low-cost road freight and oil companies will lose revenues. Tax revenues from fossil fuels will be reduced. The development of electric propulsion will compete with other alternative fuels for research and development funds.

33.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.32 Reduction potential – improved batteries (energy storage)

33.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Effective in reducing GHG and fossil fuel share

• Reduces fuel and engine maintenance costs

• Improves potential for renewable energy production through storages

• Removes noise and much of particle and other air pollutant emissions from traffic

• Stimulates technology development in all modes (including all electric ships)

33.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Optimal benefits require clean electricity production

• Technology is still at a prototype stage, first models may not be reliable

• May require dedicated charging stations (infrastructure costs)

• Increases demand for electricity production

• Includes safety risks (explosion of the battery)

• Resource availability (e.g. rare metal) may limit the application

33.2.6 Conclusion

Current batteries are unsuitable for long-distance heavy freight transport. However several developments are on the way in applied research. Bringing state of the art technology to the commercial market would make it possible to have all electric fleets. Improved energy storage in the transport sector would affect the whole energy production and distribution sector.

In spite of risks, early investments to commercialization of energy storage systems are highly recommended, but more information is needed on the comparative costs in relation to other actions and the role of different stakeholders in promoting the action.

33.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

33.3.1 RTD Policy

• Dedicated electric long distance lanes with mobile recharging would make it possible to have electric vehicles without having to wait for improved batteries to provide energy for all the operation range needed. These could be integrated to the rail structure

• To facilitate the spread of improved batteries, demonstration projects for improved batteries in heavy goods vehicles are necessary. This would reduce the barriers for moving new technology into mainstream manufacturing

• Gradual electrification beginning with auxiliary power (AC, loading, etc.) and continuing with the lengthening of battery powered operation distance when new battery materials become feasible for commercial operation

33.3.2 Transport Policy

• Synergy with the electrification of passenger transport

33.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• The first electric truck lanes in operation

• Battery powered operation demonstrated during loading and offloading

By 2035:

• Development of technology and equipment to such that a day’s operation (c.a. 600 km) can be achieved without recharging

By 2050:

• Electricity powered operation carries the most heavy goods (for energy efficiency) and delivery within cities (for low noise and zero emissions)

• Electric propulsion has also made underground roads possible, reducing transport distances and congestion

34 Action 33 – Including CO₂ Standards into HGV Regulations (EURO6)

• Riina Antikainen &
• Tuomas Mattila 

34.1 Introduction

The EURO standards have been proven successful in controlling non-CO₂ (traditional air pollutants). The inclusion of greenhouse gases (GHGs, of which CO₂ gas is the most important in the context of transport) in the EURO standards would seem to be an efficient way to control climate change and fossil fuel share. Currently, no GHG targets for heavy duty vehicles have been set by the EU Commission and political opposition to a GHG standard is expected.

34.2 Assessment

34.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The EURO standards have been applied in Europe since early 1990s, and similar regulations exist in many other countries such as USA, Australia and Japan. The EURO norms for heavy duty vehicles are based on the current engine and fuel choice, i.e. the diesel engine. These norms only apply to traditional non-CO₂ pollutants. While for passenger cars and other light vehicles, the emissions limits are defined in g/km and for other pollutants, limits for heavy duty vehicles are defined by engine power (g/kWh) (EC 2010a, 2010b). This makes comparison of the test results difficult and is not encouraging energy efficient vehicle design. Therefore a distance-based emission limit (g- CO₂/km) is seen more motivating in terms of GHG reduction and energy efficiency improvements. The heterogeneity of the truck stock and the extra capital cost makes it difficult to implement GHG limits on trucks in the EU27 States.

34.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

Environmental, energy and technology policy makers and technology developers are the main players. Diesel technology developers would benefit from the demand of improved engines, but the net effect to passenger and HGV vehicle suppliers as well as hauliers remains uncertain.

34.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.33 Reduction potential – including CO2 standards into HGV regulations (EURO6)

34.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Good potential for greenhouse gas emission reduction in relatively short time horizon

• Obligatory action is equal for all similar technologies

34.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• The concept designed for diesel engines only; therefore not high potential in the long run

• Does not control upstream emissions

• Requires administrative and regulative actions to be implemented

34.2.6 Conclusion

Including GHGs into EURO norms seem to be an efficient way to reduce emissions in a relatively short time horizon. In the long run, however, other actions are likely to be more efficient actions to reduce GHGs and improve energy efficiency.

Recommended due to the good experiences on traditional air pollutants. The action is also recommended for short distance transport.

34.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

34.3.1 RTD Policy

Heavy duty vehicles’ emission limits are defined by engine power (g-CO₂/kWh), which makes comparisons, among trucks, of the test results difficult and that metric does not encourage energy efficient vehicle design. Therefore a distance-based emission limit (g-CO₂/km) in test cycles is seen as more motivating action in terms of GHG reduction and energy efficiency improvements. Support on technological development (especially engine efficiency, aerodynamics, rolling resistance) is needed.

34.3.2 Transport Policy

European or Member State financial support (e.g. lower taxes or congestion charges) to promote technological development and to support acquisition of advanced vehicles.

34.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Development of, and agreement on, test cycles for CO₂ in diesel engines

• Technological development on heavy duty engine efficiency, rolling resistance and aerodynamics

• Policy action: agreement on the CO₂ emission level and possible reduction rate

• EU legislation and national implementation of CO₂ standards

By 2035:

• Continuous improvement of technologies and vehicles

• Updates of the emission limits and the legislation

By 2050:

• Assessment of the feasibility of the action; is it still relevant or are the other actions more powerful in emission reduction?

35 Action 34 – BAT Vehicle Certification for Heavy Goods Vehicles

• Riina Antikainen &
• Tuomas Mattila 

35.1 Introduction

The EURO standards, successful in controlling traditional air pollutants, only regulate the engine use phase emissions. With more diversified engine and fuel choices, the upstream emissions become more and more important. Consequently, a EURO standard type of a regulation model for GHG emissions and fossil fuels seems not functional for all future engine types. A certification system for Best Available Technologies (BAT) in greenhouse gas emission reduction and fuel efficiency in heavy duty vehicles is suggested.

BAT vehicle certification requires that all operating heavy goods vehicles are fitted with BAT in energy efficiency. The aim of the action is to spread good practices and to stimulate technological development.

35.2 Assessment

35.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

The US regulatory model requires trucks to be certified by the governmental environment authority. Trucks can be certified if they are fitted with up-to-date energy saving technology (i.e. aerodynamics, low rolling resistance tires and idling control).

The State of California is implementing a similar regulation, requiring all trucks operating within the State are either certified tractors or trailers or retrofitted with energy saving implements. The action is estimated to have a positive impact on freight company profits.

In other industries, BAT has proven to be useful in emission control and dissemination of good practices.

35.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are:

• Vehicle suppliers +/–

• Technology developers +

• Fleet owners –

• Regulatory certifying bodies +

35.2.3 Reduction Potential

Table 9.34 Reduction potential – BAT vehicle certification for heavy goods vehicles

35.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• Good potential for greenhouse gas emission reduction

• Cost-effective, investments have a short payback time

• Better fuel economy reduces other air pollutants

• Provides a stimulus for technology development (guaranteed market)

• Leaves freedom for choosing methods of compliance

35.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Requires additional supervision authorities

• Aerodynamics may result in longer trucks

35.2.6 Conclusion

The action could speed the adoption of energy efficient technologies in the freight industry. In addition it could stimulate technological development by guaranteeing a market, as has been experienced with the BAT policy in other industries.

Recommended because the action is anticipated to have mainly positive economic impacts and reduce emissions considerably.

35.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

35.3.1 RTD Policy

• BAT certification stimulates technological progress by guaranteeing a market for technologies which obtain the best available status. This stimulus can result in highly improved energy efficiency through competition between vehicle manufacturers.

• A testing and certifying body would be needed for new technology assessment and for updating the “best available technology” standard.

35.3.2 Transport Policy

• The enforcement of compliance to the certificates would have to be integrated to traffic monitoring.

35.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• A testing protocol for new technologies in place.

• The best available level determined for freight transport.

• All new vehicles are required to meet the BAT level.

By 2035:

• BAT standards revised several times.

• All operating trucks meet the certificates.

By 2050:

• Possible replacement of policy if technological progress has slowed down.

36 Action 35 – Clean Vehicle Technologies

• Julia Düh 

36.1 Introduction

The analysis of the clean vehicle technologies focuses mainly on low carbon technologies for heavy good vehicles (HGV) in road freight applications (World Economic Forum, 2009).

We identified three main application areas:

• vehicle: improving aerodynamics reducing rolling resistance and alternative power source, like electric engine

• powertrain: engine efficiency, waste heat recovery, alternative powertrains and transmissions

• alternative fuels, e.g. different methods of producing biodiesel.

36.2 Assessment

36.2.1 Experience and Feasibility

Reduction in rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag can give a large overall benefit in fuel consumption. For example an averaged HGV 44t gross vehicle weight (GVW) that is on a 1.528 km route over 3 days across UK can achieve a reduction in fuel consumption up to 14% by improving aerodynamic trailers and rolling resistance (Baker et al., 2009).

Some alternative powertrain such as fuel cell may have big potential, but for commercial truck use hydrogen infrastructure has to be implemented.

36.2.2 Company/Market Perspective

The most relevant market players affected by this action are

• Vehicle suppliers +

• Technology developers +

• Fleet owners and hauliers +

• Regulatory certifying bodies +

36.2.3 Reduction Potential 

Table 9.35 Reduction potential – clean vehicle technologies

36.2.4 Pro Arguments:

• High potential to reduce fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions

• Some aerodynamics applications can be added to existing HGV cab design

• Systems can be reused improving the return on investment (rolling resistance)

• New powertrains, like electric systems have low operating and maintenance costs

36.2.5 Contra Arguments:

• Addition of aerodynamic fairings can add weight and can reduce payload

• Unknown safety impact

• Increasing costs for implementation

36.2.6 Conclusion

There are a lot of technologies for road to reduce GHG. The technologies which have the greatest CO₂ reduction potential are aerodynamic trailers and electric engines. Powertrain technologies which may offer greatest tailpipe CO₂ reduction are fuel cells, full hybrids and electric engines. The benefits are application specific, with significant lifecycle CO₂ impacts depending on the energy mix.

Highly recommended

36.3 Recommended Tasks and Milestones

36.3.1 RTD Policy

• Integrated impact assessment for new materials and designs to improve aerodynamics and rolling resistance, including the interaction with infrastructure surface

• Concept for combining aerodynamic applications and applications for rolling resistance for long distance freight transport

• Integrated impact assessment on different propulsion and engine technologies and new biofuels

• Combining different sources for production of 2nd generation biofuels, carbon footprint analysis of new biofuels for long distance freight transport

• Impact assessment of engine efficiency

36.3.1.1 Demonstration Projects

• Field tests on aerodynamic improvements

• 2015: Demonstration/field trials of different renewable fuels

• 2015–2020: market availability of new biofuels

• Demonstration of different auxiliary fuel cell, electric engines and hybrid systems for LDFT

• Demonstration of CNG compressed natural gas truck engines

36.3.2 Transport Policy

The current legislation constrains the use of aerodynamic implementations at vehicles due to maximum length limits. Requirements of minimum aerodynamics standards and rolling resistance levels for trucks on certain corridors are needed.

Financial support may be given to support the development of sustainable technology for LDFT because technological changes and new technology hide big uncertainties. The implementation of each new technology is influenced by a set of alternatives regarding future energy costs, safety requirements etc.

36.3.2.1 European Transport Policy

• New directive for maximum weight and length of HGV for necessary aerodynamic changes.

• Setting standards for additional monitoring systems, for e.g. automatic tire pressure adjustment

• For the Europe-wide implementation legislation has to be adapted.

36.3.2.2 National Transport Policy

• Recommendation for a national production and distribution of infrastructure for biogas/biofuel

36.3.3 Milestones

By 2020:

• Market availability of trucks with aerodynamics and rolling resistance 30% improvements compared to the top performers from 2005.

• Facilitation of improvements in aerodynamics by more flexible directive

• Green corridors are established: field tests for aerodynamic improvements

• Green corridors are established: field test for alternative fuels and alternative engines

• RTD supported a diverse set of alternative fuels; (no competition with food production)

• 8% biofuel share is establishes (10% is biofuel share EU target)

By 2035:

• Market availability of trucks with 50% improvements compared to the top performers from 2005.

• Availability of alternative power technologies for LDFT (electric engines and hybrid systems, etc.)

• The 10% biofuel share EU target is established

By 2050:

• Market availability of trucks with 60% improvements compared to the top performers from 2005.

• More than 15% biofuel share is established

37 Side by Side Comparisons

37.1 Potential for Reducing GHG Emissions>

Table 9.36 Potential – greenhouse gas emission reduction

37.2 Potential for Reducing Fossil Fuel Share

Table 9.37 Potential – fossil fuel share reduction

37.3 Potential for Reducing Road Fatalities

Table 9.38 Potential – road fatalities reduction

37.4 Potential for Reducing Congestion

Table 9.39 Potential – congestion reduction

37.5 Recommendation

Table 9.40 Recommendation