The Power of Images

Boehme-Neßler, Volker

doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11889-0_3

Volker Boehme-Neßler²

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Abstract

The power of images is nothing new. People have had images since the early Stone Age. But the importance of images has been increasing in recent times. Because modern society is shaped by digital media which are themselves inherently image-based media. This has consequences for culture and thought.

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Notes

1.
Sachs-Hombach (2005), P. 163.
2.
Katsh (1995), P. 145 f. Similarly Heidenreich (2005), P. 387, who describes the early Internet as a “text-based medium based on command-lines”.
3.
This is why the Internet – as Sandbothe (1998), P. 589 describes – shows strong theatrical aspects: the communication via the net is shaped by pictorially dramatic and staging-like presentations.
4.
Anders (1956/2002), P. 56 f.
5.
Sauerländer (2004), P. 411, talks in this context pointedly of “electronic idolatry”.
6.
This influential concept can be traced back to Mitchell (1994a), P. 12.
7.
The term which is now current in the study of the visual arts iconic turn means something different to the dominance of images. Boehm initially talked about the iconic turn (2001a), P. 13, and demanded a hermeneutics of images, which could be separated from the text-heavy iconography and iconology.
8.
Sachs-Hombach (2005), P. 163, who does, however, correctly warn about under-estimating the complexity of images.
9.
At length on the speed of visual communication see above Chap. 3.5.1.
10.
On the concept of the information graphic at length Knieper (1995), P. 3 ff. inter alia information graphics are basically not a new phenomenon. Their history actually begins in the earliest days of human history. The early cave paintings can easily be regarded as information graphics, which tell hunting stories using images. At length on the history of information graphics Knieper (1995), P. 9 ff. inter alia; Pörksen (1997), P. 186 ff., shows that there is a close relationship between information graphics and an increasing importance of numbers and figures. As numbers and figures have become – and are becoming – ever more important, an instrument is needed to make the trenchant content of larger volumes of figures and data quickly visible. Info graphics are such an instrument.
11.
In Germany the magazine “Focus” was the first print medium to consistently use info-graphics as a means of serving up information. In media studies info-graphics have been seen since then as an important factor in the success of newspapers and magazines. At length and critically on this Haller (1997), P. 561 ff. inter alia
12.
At length on this Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 38 ff.
13.
Thus Anders (1956/2002), P. 57. Similarly also Belting (2005), P. 19.
14.
Belting (2005), P. 19.
15.
Wahl (2005), P. 482.
16.
Similarly Wahl (2005), P. 482 f., who explains this development using the example of email. People who send mails instead of writing letters, are experiencing considerably less sensual input. Another example is TV compared to “real” life.
17.
Belting (2005), P. 24.
18.
At length on the sensory function of images Schuck-Wersig (1993), P. 103 ff.
19.
The greater the progress of language recognition technologies, the stronger the increase in loss of meaning of text in the internet and in the field of computers overall.
20.
This is the seminal but still valid insight by Riepl (1913), P. 5, who calls it the “Fundamental law of the development of news communication”. The media history of the 20^th century has confirmed this theory.
21.
Thus earlier Riepl (1913), P. 5.
22.
On the link between visualisation and hypertext Pohl (2002), P. 117 ff.
23.
Pohl (2002), P. 119 f.
24.
This turns readers into users. On the change in reading behaviour thanks to hypertexts at length Wenz (2000), P. 24 ff. inter alia. On the linearity of writing and reading Türcke (2005), P. 136. That changes the law. On this Boehme-Neßler (2008), P. 617 ff.
25.
Thus a fundamental investigation by Mitchell (1990), P. 17 ff. On this also Röhl (2003), P. 230 ff., who in ibid, P. 239 ff., heightens the need for jurisprudence. On the question as to what a political image is, Drechsel (2007), P. 106 ff., who argues for political science as a science of images. Also and earlier Drechsel (2005), P. 74 ff.
26.
Belting (2002), P. 15, who notes that the basic question of an image still needs clarification. At length on the concept of the image also Scholz (2004), P. 5 ff.
27.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 73 ff., discusses the development of a cross-disciplinary concept of the image. Although his approach has not yet met general acceptance. On the concept of images in communication sciences Knieper (2005), P. 57 ff. inter alia, in political sciences Hofmann (2005), P. 72 ff. inter alia, in cartography Pápay (2005), P. 87 ff. inter alia, and in computing Nake (2005), P. 101 ff.
28.
An overview of the different concepts of images is given by Fellmann (1998), P. 188 ff. inter alia, and Marion Müller (2003), 18 ff.
29.
Images and symbols are no longer viewed as thoroughly contrasting phenomena. On this Belting (2005), P. 133 ff. inter alia. But it is not without disagreement. On this Schulz (2005), P. 78, with proof from the opponents.
30.
Similarly Fellmann (1998), P. 189; Schelske (1998), P. 63 inter alia. On the classification of images using theory of symbols Eco (2002), P. 246 ff.
31.
Thus the basic concepts from Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 73 ff. On the importance and criticism of this pictorial semiotic approach Schulz (2005), P. 82 ff.
32.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 86 f.; Kruse (2003), P. 40 ff.
33.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 262 ff., develops a system of different functions of images.
34.
Sachs-Hombach (2005), P. 169, identifies the “visualisation as the basic function of pictorial presentation”.
35.
Kruse (2006), P. 17.
36.
This is the theory developed by Belting (1996), P. 92 ff. He is joined by Kruse (2003), P. 87 f. inter alia.
37.
Kruse (2006), P. 29 talks in this context of “survival in images”.
38.
Assmann (2001), P. 61.
39.
On the total necessity of an image typology Plümacher (2005), P. 132 ff. inter alia
40.
At length on the representational function Plümacher (1998), P. 52 ff. inter alia. Critical and questioning on the concept of the representation Goodman (1997), P. 15 ff. On the function of representation in general Arnheim (1980), P. 134 ff.
41.
At length on the history and a system of representational images Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 192 ff.
42.
On this Lenssen-Erz (2005). P. 163 ff. inter alia. That rock painting also no doubt had religious functions, going way beyond the representation, is the current state of research. On this Schuck-Wersig (1993), P. 55, 65 inter alia, and Lenssen-Erz (2005), P. 166 f. inter alia. Thus particularly Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 240, who sees cave painting as symbolic presentation, similar to writing, not as representation. Generally on rock paintings Haarmann (1991), P. 22 ff.
43.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 192 ff.
44.
Particularly well-known ideograms are the Emoticons which are used in online communication. At length on this Roessler (2000), P. 511 ff. inter alia and many examples.
45.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 196 ff. inter alia. Whether pictograms belong to this category, as Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 197, assumes, is doubtful. They are better classified as instructions.
46.
Plümacher (1998), P. 51. Schuck-Wersig (1993), P. 80, talks vividly about “images as orientation guides”.
47.
At length with a host of examples on this Belting (2000), P. 54 ff.
48.
See on this the striking proofs from Kocher (1992).
49.
Plümacher (1998), P. 54. Scholz (2004), P. 131 sees pictograms as a border-line case between images and language symbols. At length on the semiotics of pictograms Blanke and others. (2005), P. 149 ff. inter alia. On the difficulties of creating internationally understood pictograms Brugger (2005), P. 35 ff.
50.
This expression coined by Flusser (2007), P. 97, 137 ff.
51.
Plümacher (1998), P. 55 f.
52.
Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 264 ff. inter alia, talks in this context about the cognitive function of images. In detail on this, how maps are perceived and “read” by people, Arnheim (1986), P. 195 ff.
53.
On image-based medicinal diagnosis and surgery Peitgen (2004), P. 151 ff., and Boehm (2007), P. 109 ff.
54.
This does not apply without some restrictions. It is increasingly being attempted to make images audible. An example of this is the project “Atomic tone worlds”: The crystallographic arrangement of atoms is made visible and audible at the same time. On this Heckl (2004), P. 129.
55.
Plümacher (1998), P. 55.
56.
The classic example from everyday life is the doctor, who “reads” and interprets X-ray image or computer graphics.
57.
At length on current methods of neuro-imaging Hüsing/Jäncke/Tag (2006), P. 5 ff.
58.
A particularly clever example of documenting reality through images is the scanning tunnelling microscope. On this Heckl (2004), P. 136 ff.
59.
Weibel (2004), P. 226 talks in this context of epistemic images in contrast to mimetic images in art.
60.
Plümacher (1998), 54 f. An informative example can be found in Liebert (2007), P. 176 f.: From the various degrees of shading on an ultrasound image an expert can interpret the presence of triplets as early as the 8^th week of pregnancy.
61.
Thus Mitchell (1990), P. 56.
62.
Representations are also found in reflective images, without them being the primary intent. On this Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 208.
63.
Similarly Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 208 ff. Schuck-Wersig (1993), P. 89 ff., talks in this context about reflections with identification and projection functions. In terms of content this is like reflective images.
64.
On this Belting (2000), P. 11 ff. inter alia
65.
In detail on this Müller (2007), P. 83 ff. with impressive examples.
66.
Plümacher (1998), P. 56 f. inter alia
67.
At length on images as a language of art Goodman (1997), P. 183 ff.
68.
Müller (2007), P. 72.
69.
Illustrated by Müller (2007), P. 72 ff. with examples from the tendentious literature of the Reformation.
70.
At length on the communicative effect of text-image combinations see below Chap.3.8.3.
71.
On this Singer (2004), P. 63 ff.
72.
Already in the 19^th century the physicist Helmholtz had formulated the discovery that images only arise thanks to perception by the observer. Unlike what seems to be the case in everyday experience, the impression received by the viewer is not the expression of the item being viewed. This insight was only rediscovered by modern neuro-sciences empirically in the last few decades. At length on this Frey (1999), P. 43 ff. inter alia
73.
On this Pöppel (2000), P. 74 ff. Goodman (1997), P. 50 talks in this context about the “reversed presentation” of a process similar to reflection in a mirror.
74.
Goodman (1997), P. 50, assumes a symbolic relationship between reality and signs. He sees this in contrast to a physical reflection or copy of reality via a sign.
75.
Messaris (1994), P. 118 f.
76.
Pöppel (2000), P. 76.
77.
Gregory (2001), P. 251.
78.
At length on the theory that perceptions (confirmed or falsified) are assumptions, Gregory (2001), P. 26 ff, 253.
79.
Pöppel (2000), P. 76.
80.
Singer (2004), P. 65. Gregory (2001), P. 253.
81.
On this Singer (2004), P. 67 ff.
82.
Singer (2004), P. 75.
83.
Thus summarised very pointedly and tendentiously Singer (2004), P. 75.
84.
Merten (1997), P. 22.
85.
On this also Weidenmann (1994), P. 29 f. inter alia. This view also has a neuro-physiological basis. The retina on which images are focussed is not, unlike photographic film, a passive recipient of images. It actively converts images using several hundred million specialised cells which work in parallel. At length on this Hoffman (2001), P. 96 f.
86.
An overview is supplied by Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 25 ff.
87.
Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 53 f. inter alia. This is illustrated physically with the Theory of the missing half-second: The recipient is then missing – compared to non-medial reception – about a half a second, used to adjust to the content, which are received via image media. This has an influence on the cognitive processing and emotions are in the forefront. At length on this Sturm (1984), P. 61 ff., who provides empirical evidence for this theory.
88.
Seminal on this Abelson (1981), P. 715 ff. At length on the state of research in cognitive sciences Weidenmann (1994), P. 28 ff.
89.
Cognitive psychology talks in this context about “scripts”, which represent cognitive structures. On this Abelson (1981), P. 716 ff. inter alia, and Zimbardo (1992), P. 292 ff., 313 inter alia. At length on the function of schemas for human thought and perception Aronson and others (2004), P. 62 ff.
90.
On this Weidenmann (1994), P. 29 inter alia, who talks about a “matching process” between the optical stimulus and the acquired or developmentally historical schemas available, and Berendt (2005), P. 26. Recognition of images using existing schemas is also used in developing artificial intelligence. On this earlier Abelson (1981), P. 715 f.
91.
At length on this Weidenmann (1994), P. 28 ff. inter alia, who stresses the importance of the mental schemas which are already present for the so-called pre-attentive reception processes.
92.
Cognitive psychology refers to this process as top-down processing. On this at length Spoehr/Lehmkuhle (1982), P. 166 ff. inter alia, Weidenmann (1994), P. 32 ff. inter alia. From a theory of symbols point of view on this Eco (2002), P. 205 f.
93.
Doelker (1989), P. 33.
94.
Doelker (1989), P. 33.
95.
Doelker (1989), P. 173.
96.
Doelker (1989), P. 33. In this sense abstract images are concrete, or able to be assimilated by the senses. The fact they do not represent objects does not change that in any way.
97.
Seminally on thinking in images and visual thinking, Arnheim (1980), P. 101 ff.
98.
Doelker (1989), P. 174.
99.
Thoroughly on the basic communicative function of faces Eibl-Eibesfeldt/Sütterlin (1992), P. 371 ff., and Landau (1993), P. 145 ff. Later research has revealed how important mimicry is for the creation of empathy. On this Adam (2004), P. 137 inter alia. As far back as Charles Darwin who stressed the importance of the face for the expression of emotions: Darwin (1872/1998), P. 33 f. and pass.
100.
At length on the presentation of the face in art Eibl-Eibesfeldt/Sütterlin (2007), P. 348 ff.
101.
At length on faces on television Schulz (2007), P. 290 ff.
102.
Macho (1996), P. 87, who therefore talks about a “facial society”, “which produces an endless series of faces”. In the early days of art the representation of faces was still very rare. At length on this Eibl-Eibesfeldt/Sütterlin (1992), P. 298 ff., and Macho (1996), P. 93.
103.
Schierl (2007), P. 98 inter alia.
104.
This is shown by Schierl (2007a), P. 19 ff., in a wide-ranging empirical study.
105.
Ringlstetter et al (2007), P. 125 f. inter alia. Schierl (2007), P. 98, reduces it to the slogan: Celebrity sells.
106.
Arnheim (1980), P. 197.
107.
Arnheim (1980), P. 197 f.
108.
On this Berendt (2005), P. 25.
109.
On this Gombrich (1984), P. 142 inter alia
110.
At length on this see above Chap. 3.4.
111.
Gombrich (1984), P. 142 inter alia talks in this context about observer input.
112.
At length on this Hoffman (2001), P. 19 ff., who derives a whole series of individual detailed construction rules.
113.
Hoffmann (2001), P. 47.
114.
At length on this Hoffmann (2001), P. 141 ff. inter alia
115.
On the importance of iconography and iconology as methods of image analysis, Panofsky is seminal (1939/1978), P. 38 ff.
116.
At length on iconography Panofsky (1939/1978), P. 39 f., although he, ibid., P. 42 also stresses the limits of this method.
117.
Seminal on iconology Panofsky (1939/1978), P. 40 ff.
118.
Seminal on this Halbwachs (1985/1925), P. 71 f. and pass. who has developed the paradigm of collective memory. Going further Hirst/Manier (2002), P. 40 ff., who refine the concept and attempt a systematic classification of different collective memories
119.
Halbwachs (1985/1925), P. 71 f.
120.
Saar (2002), P. 271 describes cultures as “communities of memories” for this reason. An excerpt from collective memory might be the European “image bank”, that Warburg reconstructed in his Mnemosyne project. At length on this Warburg (2003), P. 3 ff. A special role is played in the constitution of collective memory by (image) archives. On this Drechsel (2005), P. 106 ff. inter alia
121.
Halbwachs (1985/1925), P. 62 f., stresses that each individual reconstructs his memories. And the reconstruction is of course individual and subjectively coloured, even if elements of collective memory are included.
122.
Doelker (1989), P. 178 f. inter alia; Meyer u. a. (2000), P. 133 inter alia; Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 63 ff. inter alia; Schuster (2003), P. 24 ff. inter alia; Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 264, stresses in this context that writing – unlike images – is much less suitable for expressing irrational moments.
123.
Grau (2005), P. 99, represents this pointedly, who discerns an increase in suggestiveness as the motivation and main goal if developing new image media. This is particularly obvious in films: their commercial success is determined by how strongly they can stir up and control emotions in viewers. On this Eder (2005), P. 107 ff. inter alia. A brief overview on the research into emotional effects of the media from Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 29 ff. inter alia
124.
Frankenberg (2004), P. 2, who sees in this the decisive difference to written texts.
125.
Keil (2005), P. 138. Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 39 inter alia confirm this with empiric studies for television news programmes: emotional images in the news programmes are perceived more attentively than reports with non-emotional topics. Although the effect of various images differs in capturing attention. Not every image captures attention with the same intensity. The attention factor is also reduced again by the effect of habit. At length on the interaction between media development, attention and habit Grau (2005), P. 71 inter alia. Television is a particularly emotional electronic mass medium. At length on the reasons for and implications of this fact Meyrowitz (1990a), P. 207 ff.
126.
This is increasingly also being confirmed by cognitive psychological and neuro-physiological studies. On this Keil (2005), P. 139 ff. inter alia. The medium that has developed into the image-dominated medium par excellence, is television. Because images are particularly well suited to capture attention that is only logical. Without images television could not win in the battle for the attention of viewers and so survive economically.
127.
Informative on this Belting (2000), P. 11 ff., who ascribes the power of images mainly to the fact that they affect deeper layers of human personality than do words.
128.
On the power exercised by images Heinz (2002), P. 73 ff. inter alia. A striking – and revolting – example of this is the strategic use of images in war. On this Lohoff (2007), P. 106 ff. inter alia, and Müller (2005), P. 405 ff. inter alia. Another, equally revolting example: the Nazi regime used film deliberately for propaganda purposes. On this for example Ecke (2002), P. 54 ff. inter alia, and Isensee (2002), P. 70 ff. inter alia. Generally on the relationship between images and politics Lesske (2005), P. 236 ff. inter alia
129.
Advertising aims directly at creating specific feelings in the viewer and at influencing their behaviour through this. Informative on this Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 155 ff. On the instrumentation of emotions through advertising from a social psychology viewpoint Aronson et al (2004), P. 257 ff. inter alia
130.
An overview of research into emotion in films and television is provided by Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 38 inter alia. At length on manipulating emotions in films Eder (2005), P. 107 ff. inter alia
131.
On the creation of emotions in the theatre through acting, gestures, body movements and postures at length Fischer-Lichte (2003), P. 48 ff. inter alia
132.
On emotional television Bente/Fromm (1997), P. 19 ff. and pass.
133.
On this generally Keil/Eder (2005), P. 224 ff. inter alia
134.
This is not least due the fact that the definition of emotions and the way they work is highly controversial. At length on this Zimbardo/Gerrig (2004), P. 552 ff. inter alia. Generally on the neuro-physiology of emotions Roth (2003), P. 290 ff. inter alia
135.
On this for example Doelker (1989), P. 102 ff. inter alia
136.
Merten (2003), P. 38 inter alia. At length on this Koenig (1975), P. 74 ff. inter alia; Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 62, with many examples from empirical observations and experimental studies.
137.
On the cognitive psychology of the emotions as an overview Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 28 inter alia, and Zimbardo/Gerrig (2004), P. 556 f. inter alia
138.
At length on this see above Chap. 3.4.
139.
Details on this, how this topic is discussed in Emotional Psychology, referred to by Merten (2003), P. 104 ff. inter alia
140.
This is argued – with differing emphasis – particularly by cognitive emotional theories. On this Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 28 inter alia
141.
Zimbardo/Gerrig (2004), P. 554 ff. inter alia
142.
LeDoux (2004), P. 47 ff., traces the discussion.
143.
At length on the state of research LeDoux (2004), P. 52 ff. inter alia; Zimbardo/Gerrig (2004), P. 556 f. inter alia
144.
Seminal for this recognition Zajonc (1980), P. 151 ff.; Zajonc (1984), P. 119 ff. At length on this Zimbardo (1992), P. 388; LeDoux (2004), P. 58 ff. inter alia. For psychoanalysis this is not a new discovery. What is new is the empirical-experimental proof of the psychoanalytic theory.
145.
Thus succinctly LeDoux (2004), P. 59. To this extent the new research findings confirm Sigmund Freud’s theory of the power of the unconscious.
146.
Thus very decisively Zajonc (1984), P. 121.
147.
Seminal on this Bornstein (1992), P. 191 ff. On the history of research into perception LeDoux (2004), P. 64 ff. inter alia
148.
LeDoux (2004), P. 62 f. inter alia. Informative on this Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 155 ff., who translates discoveries about the psychology of perception about unconscious perception into concrete marketing strategies.
149.
On this Belting (2000), P. 11 ff. inter alia and many examples.
150.
Weidenmann (1998), P. 243 inter alia. Similarly, but with different nuances on an empirical basis Brosius (1993), P. 113, for the special case of news programmes with images. Images have always been used to memorise content better. At length on memorising functions of images in the early modern era. Müller (2007), P. 75 ff. inter alia
151.
The recognition that emotions improve storage of memories does not just apply across the board. On the finer details of this discovery with empirical studies Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 40 f. inter alia. An opposing example is news programmes. In this case information which is linked with emotional images is not significantly better remembered. On this Brosius (1993), P. 114.
152.
This becomes particularly clear with traumatic events. On this Schramm/Wirth (2006), P. 40 inter alia
153.
Weidenmann (1998), P. 243 inter alia with meta-analysis of empirical studies. At length on the effect of emotions on cognitive functions Zimbardo/Gerrig (2004), P. 560 f. inter alia
154.
On the effect of canonic images Pörksen (1997), P. 99 ff. inter alia
155.
These examples are from Pörksen (1997), P. 112 ff. inter alia
156.
Very critical on this Pörksen (1997), P. 115 ff.
157.
Thoroughly on the importance of (good and bad) arguments in persuasive communication Aronson et al. (2004), P. 239 ff. With proofs from empirical studies.
158.
Meyer et al (2000), P. 133 f. The German constitutional court also stresses the special effectiveness of TV images. In BVerfGE 90, 60, 87 they talk explicitly about the greater range, nearness, plausibility and suggestiveness of TV images.
159.
At length on this Kepplinger (1987) and Kepplinger/Maurer (2001), P. 118 ff., based on an empirical analysis of the parliamentary elections in 1998.
160.
On this Sontag (2006), P. 23 f. An impressive example for this is the famous press photo in 1968 from the war in Vietnam, where the police chief of Saigon kills a supposed Vietcong-fighter close up with a shot to the head. This photo was known in the US as the “photo that lost the war”. On this Perlmutter (2003), P. 3 inter alia
161.
On the lack of distance of animated TV images generally Meyer u. a. (2000), P. 134.
162.
Referred to explicitly by Meyer et al (2000), P. 73.
163.
Grittmann (2003), P. 139 with the example of press photography. But it applies equally to (almost) all kinds of images. Similarly Sontag (2006), P. 10: “Photography means taking possession of the object you photograph”.
164.
On “Liveness” on TV Meyrowitz (1990a), P. 239 ff. inter alia
165.
On “Liveness” in the theatre Fischer-Lichte (2004), P. 114 ff. inter alia
166.
Gombrich (1984), P. 243; Heinz (2002), P. 72 f.; Bätschmann (2001), P. 48 ff. On the ambiguity of images from a cognitive sciences point of view Hoffman (2001), P. 30 ff.
167.
Ejchenbaum (1978), P. 36.
168.
Otherwise images cannot be understood, claims Kuchenbuch (1978), P. 36.
169.
At length on this Eco (2002), P. 197 ff. inter alia
170.
Thus very decisively Berghaus (1986), P. 284, and Boehm (2001a), P. 330. Similarly Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 86 ff., who therefore classifies images as “easy-to-receive symbols”. Similarly Nöth (2000), P. 490, who classifies images as the “Prototypes of iconic signs”. At length on the effect of pictorial analogies Issing (1994), P. 149 ff. inter alia. But Scholz (2004), P. 21 ff. differs, challenging the iconicity of images. Thoroughly on the iconicity of images from a semiotic perspective Kruse (2003), P. 29 ff. inter alia
171.
In tone poems this is different.
172.
Watzlawick u. a. (2000), P. 62; Berghaus (1986), P. 284. On the difficulties which are linked to the concept of pictorial exactitude, Rehkämper (2005), P. 243 ff.
173.
Boehm (2001a), P. 330; Heinz (2002), P. 26.
174.
Berghaus (1986), P. 281.
175.
Pasolini (1971), P. 39. Similarly sceptical from Monkiewitsch (2004), P. 57 ff., who strongly stresses the role of (creative) chance in the creation of images
176.
Thus Berghaus (1986), P. 281 inter alia, on the state of development of the grammar of media. Similarly earlier Langer (1957), P. 95 f. This theory is contradicted by Vollmer (2004), P. 19 ff., who also starts from a fundamental grammar at least for photographic images. Thürlemann (1990), P. 9 f., also thinks a grammar of images is possible. If images are understood intuitively, this is an indication that fundamental anthropologically founded rules of comprehension – and therefore a grammar of images - exist.
177.
Boehm (2001b), P. 267 f., stresses emphatically that images are non-notational. Although there are repeated attempts to develop an alphabet for images: a limited combination of image elements, which can be combined in every new ways to make any image statement. An informative recent example is Hemboldt’s image alphabet. (2006), P. 141 ff.
178.
So at least Pasolini (1971), P. 40, who sees in this a reason for the unlimited potential of film authors.
179.
On the multi-dimensionality of images Hoffman (2001), P. 157 ff.; Berendt (2005), P. 24 f. inter alia
180.
Particularly the colours used in an image multiply the interpretation options considerably. At length on the meaning of colours Itten (2006), P. 68 ff.; M. Wagner (2002), P. 17 ff. inter alia. Colour is – as Albrecht (1974) put it – a language. Colours and relationships between colours are therefore an important – but also very difficult – aspect of iconography and iconology. On this Bätschmann (2001), P. 138 ff. inter alia. Thoroughly on the importance of colours in the presentation of Information Tufte (1990), P. 81 ff.
181.
Comprehensive on the various dimensions and aspects of images Arnheim (2000).
182.
Of course this does not mean that words and texts do not also have various levels of meaning. Informative on this Doelker (2005), P. 255 ff., who proposes a multi-dimensional layered model of image semantics.
183.
Berendt (2005), P. 25 inter alia Thoroughly on the hermeneutics of images Gadamer (1960/1990), P. 139 ff.
184.
On the associative power of images Marion Müller (2003), P. 83 inter alia
185.
On associative thinking generally Türcke (2005), P. 131 ff. inter alia
186.
Although images and concepts can trigger similar associations in different people. The art of visual communication consist among other things in finding such images. Then the networks of association which an image calls up can be (to a point) manipulated. On this Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 136 ff. with examples.
187.
At length on this see above Chap. 3.4.
188.
Gombrich (1984), P. 243.
189.
Thus very emphatically Gombrich (1984), P. 243.
190.
Logical relationships would be one means of consciously influencing contents. As logical relationships link different elements using rules which are defined and so predictable. That reduces the options of interpretation. In any case images do not work precisely with logical relationships.
191.
At length on this, how the associative effects of visual communication can be controlled, Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 136 ff.
192.
Weidenmann (1994), P. 26 inter alia
193.
Schuster (2003), P. 26, says metaphorically that information can access the brain via images
“without having to pass through the critical gateways of consciousness”.
194.
Weidenmann (1994), P. 26 inter alia
195.
Weidenmann (1994), P. 29 inter alia
196.
The concept dates back to the Gestalt psychologists Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka. See seminally Koffka (1935/1963), P. 110, 151, who talks of a “Law of Praegnanz”. At length on this Ertel (1981), P. 107 ff.; Weidenmann (1994), P. 29 inter alia, and Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 72 ff. inter alia. On the neuro-biological basis of praegnanz thinking Eibl-Eibesfeldt/Sütterlin (2007), P. 173 ff. inter alia. The effect of visual communication can be increased if the principle of conciseness is observed. Actual examples for the application of the praegnanz principle in imagery and graphics are provided by Eberleh (1990), P. 76 ff.
197.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 72 ff. With examples for this phenomenon.
198.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 75 f. inter alia; Ertel (1981), P. 114. Similarly Arnheim (2000), P. 69, who in addition distinguishes between the praegnanz principle and the tendency to simplify structures to the extreme.
199.
Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 76 ff.
200.
Similarly Ertel (1981), P. 124
201.
On optical illusions from a cognitive biological viewpoint Eibl-Eibesfeldt/Sütterlin (2007), P. 164 ff. inter alia. Generally on different playful types of optical deception Grünewald (2007), P. 65 ff. inter alia, and striking examples.
202.
At length on the connection between the principle of praegnanz and dogmatism Eibl-Eibesfeldt (1997), P. 77 ff. inter alia; Ertel, (1981) P. 124 ff., who provides examples from the political history of the 20^th century.
203.
Seminal on this Paivio (1971).
204.
The hypothesis of dual coding of images which has now been empirically supported by a swathe of studies dates back to Paivio (1971). At length on the further development and modernisation of this theory Engelkamp (1998), P. 230 ff. inter alia. On the reception of informational images also Weidenmann (1994), P. 25 ff. inter alia
205.
At length on this Paivio (1986).
206.
Very critical on this Pylyshyn (1984). On the other side Paivio (1986). An overview of both schools of thought which oppose each other on this question from Schumacher (1998), P. 44 f. inter alia
207.
Kosslyn (1994), P. 9 ff. A concise overview of the existing empirical material comes from Peeck (1994), P. 73 ff. with many references. Important arguments for the theory of dual coding are supplied by recent research on eidetic (“photographic”) memory. On this Zimbardo (1992), P. 287 f. inter alia
208.
Hasebrook (1995), P. 113.
209.
Singer (2004), P. 59. Similarly Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 238.
210.
Singer (2004), P. 60.
211.
Singer (2004), P. 64.
212.
Singer (2004), P. 64.
213.
Diner (2005), P. 112 ff. Shows that developments in the Islamic world took a different path. The Arabic world is suffering the consequences of the primacy of an oral tradition to the present day. On this theory at length Diner (2005), P. 112 ff. inter alia
214.
Assmann (2006), P. 91 inter alia
215.
John 1, 1.
216.
The text of speeches by senior politicians is generally distributed to journalists, before the speech is delivered. But the manuscripts carry the comment “The words spoken only apply”. This is a relict from the time when listening was particularly important.
217.
Assmann (2006), P. 92.
218.
Eisenstein (1979), P. 12 9 ff.
219.
Diner (2005), P. 112.
220.
Keil (2005), P. 138 inter alia
221.
Singer (2004), P. 59.
222.
Weidenmann (1998), P. 243 inter alia
223.
Engelkamp (1998), P. 227 inter alia
224.
Thus roughly Engelkamp (1998), P. 227.
225.
On this Engelkamp (1998), P. 232 inter alia
226.
Engelkamp (1998), P. 232 f. inter alia
227.
Engelkamp (1998), P. 230 ff. inter alia refers to the results of the relevant studies at length. On this also at length Berendt (2005), P. 28 ff. inter alia
228.
Thoroughly on the meaning of verbal language and its limits from a semiotic viewpoint Eco (1999), P. 46 ff.
229.
Messaris (1994), P. 22.
230.
Messaris (1994), P. 22.
231.
Messaris (1994), P. 22, stresses that there are a few exceptions to this principle.
232.
Messaris (1994), P. 114; Brunschwig (2001), P. 106; Plümacher (1998), P. 53, who, however, correctly points out that in certain contexts images can represent abstract ideas.
233.
Messaris (1994), P. 115, sees this correctly as a decisive difference between language and images. The examples which Messaris (1994), P. 116, gives are informative.
234.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 106 inter alia
235.
Thus, however, very emphatically Edson (1990), P. 261 and Berendt (2005), P. 25.
236.
Messaris (1994), P. 114, and Brunschwig (2001), P. 106, refer to this. On the different variants which are possible, Brugger (2005), P. 45 f.
237.
Similarly Messaris (1994), P. 114 f.
238.
This concept created by Berendt (2005), P. 25.
239.
Mitchell (2001), P. 23 f.
240.
Sontag (2006), P. 11 f.
241.
Watzlawick et al (2000), P. 62 f.; Heinz (2002), P. 26. Sachs-Hombach (2003), P. 86 ff., classifies images therefore as “perception-like symbols”. But Scholz (2004), P. 21 ff. sees it differently.
242.
Boehm (2001a), P. 330.
243.
Boehm (2001a), P. 330. On this Bolz (2001), P. 73: “Nature records itself – as a photo”.
244.
Critically and thoroughly on this Kepplinger (1987), P. 302 inter alia; Bentele (1988), P. 407 ff. inter alia. Informative on this are the studies on the comprehension of the watcher about TV programmes from Messaris (1994), P. 149 inter alia. At length on this also Frey (1999), P. 40 ff., who in this context talks about the dogmatic nature of the visual impression.
245.
Röhl/Ulbrich (2000), P. 355, 380; Meyer et al (2000), P. 135.
246.
This pushes Schreitmüller (2005) to the slogan: “All images lie.”
247.
Sontag (2006), P. 12 stresses quite correctly that “Photos [are] just as much an interpretation of the world as paintings and drawings”. In this context Kepplinger (1987), P. 302, talks about the “essentialistic false conclusion”. Somewhat tendentiously Albrecht (2007), P. 29, reduces it to the slogan: “Images always lie.”
248.
Sontag (2006), P. 12. On the still underestimated importance of the material in modern art, at length Wagner (2002), P. 57 ff.
249.
Arnheim (1993/2004), P. 56 f. How this selection happens in practice in editing an image is described by Miener (2004), P. 44 ff. inter alia, informative in the detail.
250.
At length on this see above Chap. 3.5.3.
251.
Singer (2004), P. 56 f. like Ong (1982), P. 117, shows that the awareness of the susceptibility of images to forgery compared say to listening was present in ancient times. This is a problem area that came to the foreground in the transition from oral to literate cultures. Hickethier (1997), P. 525, refers to the fact that the level of truth contained in an image was always almost impossible to measure.
252.
An overview with spectacular examples is given by Jaubert (1989), P. 17 ff.
253.
On this Heinz (2002), P. 73 ff. with many other references, and Jaubert (1989), P. 17 ff., with many examples.
254.
At length on this Brugioni (1999), P. 25 ff. inter alia Jaubert (1989), P. 10 ff. classifies the various techniques which can be used to forge photos. Forster (2003), P. 66 ff., provides a historical retrospective with spectacular examples. Using the example of photography Brugioni (1999), P. 17 ff., and Mitchell (2001), P. 191 ff., develop a typology of image manipulation. Similarly Knieper (2005a), P. 41 ff., for images in the mass media. Impressive examples from history are presented by Heinz (2002), P. 73 ff.. On the neuro-physiological and communication psychological background to the potential for manipulation that images have, Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 93 ff. inter alia.
255.
But this does not mean that the idea of images being true-to-nature representations was unknown.? An informative example is the Acheiropoita of the late byzantine era: images in which the holy image being depicted was created by itself. Greater authenticity is hard to imagine. At length on the icons “not made by human hand” Wortmann (2003), P. 32 ff. with evidence of contemporary discussions.
256.
Schierl (2003), P. 152 f. inter alia. The authenticity of images was not measured by their similarity to what was being depicted. It depended on other criteria. On the various concepts of authentication in painting since late antiquity Wortmann (2003), P. 79 ff.; 119 ff.
257.
Schierl (2003), P. 152 f. with examples. An impressive example is also given by Gombrich (1984), P. 140 f.: Reports about the earthquake in Ferrara (1570) and the floods in Voigtland (1573) are illustrated using the same image. On this also Wortmann (2003), P. 63 ff. inter alia the artist sees themselves as alter deus and therefore takes the liberty of freeing himself from the realities and work creatively. Similar occurrences can be seen in the modern mass media. It is not unusual for current events to be illustrated using older images, without the images being expressly labelled as archive material. On this Doelker (1997), P. 23 f. and Berens/Hagen (1997), P. 545 f. each with examples.
258.
Schierl (2003), P. 153 f. inter alia.
259.
Very pointedly Schierl (2003), P. 153 f.
260.
At length on the importance of the development of photography for the concept of and the claims to authenticity, Wortmann (2003), P. 124 ff. inter alia.
261.
Manovich (2001), P. 27 f. Heidenreich (2005), P. 381, talks relevantly about a “dual existence” of digital images “as a data file and as a visible image.”
262.
Manovich (2001), P. 27.
263.
At length on this Brugioni (1999), P. 6 ff., 173 ff. and Mitchell (2001), P. 59 ff. with many examples. On the digital processing of images in the media Hickethier (2003), P. 97 f. inter alia, and Manovich (2001), P. 152 ff.
264.
Quite often the image manipulation happens automatically. Roßnagel/Knopp (2006), P. 988, point out that digital photos are immediately and automatically optimised by software inside the camera – and so are changed.
265.
The lack of traceability of digital changes is stressed by Plümacher (1998), P. 54. Bolz (2001), P. 73, talks in this context about digitalisation being the “kingdom of untraceable forgery”.
266.
On further criteria on judging the authenticity of photos Mitchell (2001), P. 43 ff.
267.
Plümacher (1998), P. 55.
268.
Mitchell (1994), P. 49; Mitchell (2001), P. 31 ff.
269.
But Hickethier (2003), P. 97, shows with examples that manipulation can also be detectable by the layman due to contextual information. The decisive problem is, however, whether any contextual information is available.
270.
Informative on this Brugioni (1999), P. 193 f., who describes a good example of how photo manipulations can be detected.
271.
On the unbalanced positions of symbol provider and symbol reader generally Pörksen (1997), P. 165 f.
272.
On this using an example of the production of an apparently authentic press photo Schierl (2003), P. 162.
273.
This problem is particularly acute in photo-journalism, which relies on the assumption of credibility which images enjoy. On this Grittmann (2003), P. 131 inter alia
274.
Röhl/Ulbrich (2000), P. 355, 380, and Brugioni (1999), P. 193 f. But Forster (2003), P. 98 inter alia, disagrees with the (in my opinion) doubtful, empirically unproven theory: that images have always been manipulated is something which all observers have always known.
275.
On the photo as evidence around 1900 Karallus (2007), P. 152 ff. inter alia and many examples.
276.
On this Plümacher (1998), P. 55.
277.
Thus Hickethier (1997), P. 525, with the example of journalistic news programmes. A practical and very relevant example for this are captions with published photos. Problematic examples from real life are given by and Hickethier (2003), P. 97. Here there is the potential for manipulation of images: falsification of context. At length on this Albrecht (2007), P. 32 ff. inter alia
278.
On this Albrecht (2007), P. 32 ff. inter alia, and Knieper (2005a), P. 43 f. inter alia. A trivial but widespread example of this in the press are misleading captions or mis-identification of elements of images. On this Forster (2003), P. 95 f.
279.
Spohn (2002), P. 255 ff. inter alia, provides a historic overview of how the development of media technologies has repeatedly changes the way people see. Albrecht (2007), P. 47, even pleads for “a new hostility to images”. But that is hardly a sensible strategy for dealing with the modern flood of images. More realistic is Lüthe (2007), P. 62, who stresses that you cannot expect more veracity from images than you can from everyday human communication generally.
280.
Belting (2002), P. 41, refers to this.
281.
Belting (2002), P. 41.
282.
Belting (2002), P. 40 f., sees signs for the start of an evolutionary process in knowledge about images and the use of images by people.
283.
Bolz (2001), P. 73.
284.
Forster (2003), P. 73 ff. inter alia, on the basis of questionnaires of readers in the print media area.
285.
Very informative on this the questionnaire results from Forster (2003), P. 86, 90, 92.
286.
Examples which confirm this theory are given by Freund (1997), P. 172 ff. This is particularly an issue for war reporting. At length on press war images Lohoff (2007), P. 107 ff. inter alia
287.
At length on this Volland (2008), P. 20 ff.
288.
At length on the problems and ethics of photo journalism Grittmann (2003), P. 129 ff. inter alia
289.
On this roughly at length Langer (1957), P. 79 ff. Although – from an anthropological point of view – language and painting have developed since the early Stone Age from common roots: the ability of homo sapiens to set down thought in material symbols. At length on this Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 237 ff.
290.
Krämer (2006), P. 79 ff. inter alia, goes even further, who says that “writing is a hybrid of speech and image”.
291.
Stetter (2005), P. 117.
292.
Similarly Belting (1989), P. 38.
293.
Wenzel (1995), P. 292 ff. inter alia. He notes that there is a strong affinity between image and text which he describes as the “imagery of language” and the “narration of images”. On this also Pörksen (1997), P. 151 ff., and Nöth (2000), P. 490 inter alia
294.
Bätschmann (2001), P.
295.
Nöth (2000), P. 490, talks about the “iconicity of language”. Even if vivid metaphors are not excluded from legal language, they are only used there very sparingly. On this Jung (1994), P. 416 ff., and Baer (2004), P. 240 ff. inter alia. Whether this has to be the case is very much open to doubt.
296.
This is not a new finding for philosophy and the study of literature. On this Wenzel (1995), P. 416 inter alia In the Middle Ages poets created mental “constructions”, which were created as images in front of the readers/audience. They saw themselves quite frequently as “architects of poetry”. At length on this Wandhoff (2003), P. 51 f. inter alia
297.
At length on personification and allegory from a literary criticism point of view Wenzel (1995), P. 450 ff. inter alia. Personifications are also on the other hand an important means of representing content in images. On personification from the point of view of the history of art Warncke (2005), P. 79 ff.
298.
Ekphrases are therefore windows within a text, which (try to) turn the listener into a watcher. At length on this Rippl (2006), P. 96 ff. inter alia, Wandhoff (2003), P. 41 ff. and Wandhoff (2001), P. 175 ff. inter alia. A famous example from world literature is given by Eco (1999), P. 48.
299.
On this Wenzel (1995), P. 422, 444 f. inter alia
300.
Mitchell (1990), P. 30 ff. inter alia provides a short overview of the history of imagery in language.
301.
Wenzel (1995), P. 298 f. inter alia
302.
Wenzel (1995), P. 293 inter alia on the current status of philological research..
303.
Wenzel (1995), P. 296.
304.
At length on this Wenzel (1995), P. 296 inter alia
305.
Yates (1990), P. 46 f. inter alia
306.
Wenzel (1995), P. 300 inter alia
307.
Thoroughly on language images as a rhetorical visualisation strategy Voßkamp (2007), P. 118 ff.
308.
Voßkamp (2007), P. 212 ff. shows this effectively with the example of Goethe’s “coming-of-age novels”.
309.
On images made up of writing from a typographic perspective at length Gorbach (2005), P. 304 ff., with informative examples.
310.
At length on the visual poetry of ancient times Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 21 ff., with striking examples.
311.
On the technopaegna or shaped poems Rippl (2006), P. 94 f. with a striking example, and Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 33 ff. One of, if not the, pinnacle of the history of shaped poems is Hrabanus Maurus’ Liber de laudibus sanctae crucis, which was created between 806 and 814. At length on this Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 39 ff. inter alia, and Ernst (2003), P. 17 ff.
312.
Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 73 ff., 183 ff., with examples.
313.
Arnheim (1986), P. 93 ff., shows impressively that poems can also be images.
314.
Nöth (2000), P. 495 inter alia On the importance of a connection text-images in advertising Kroeber-Riel (1996), P. 178 ff. inter alia
315.
Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 212 ff. outline the relaunch of the genre since Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy in 1760.
316.
Ernst (1990), P. 197 ff. Similarly Nöth (2000), P. 495 inter alia
317.
Still well-known today – but quite simply wrong – is Lessing’s opinion, who in 1766 in his essay on the theory of art Laokoon or On the Limits of Painting and Poetry made a strict distinction between image and text, painting and poetry. The text is shown in Adler/Ernst (1990), P. 221. Willems (1990), P. 424 f., gives examples from representative art and literature, which clearly show that Lessing's strict distinction is meaningless and wrong – and indeed was so even at his time. Nevertheless the text became very influential and led to the intellectual downgrading of the value of images until the beginning of the 20^th century. On the history of the legacy of Lessing’s Laokoon at length Warncke (2006), P. 51 ff. inter alia
318.
This theory is argued by Krämer (2006), P. 79 ff. inter alia
319.
Belting (2000), P. 20. Similarly Wenzel (1995), P. 300, who points out that this insight was proverbial in ancient times.
320.
Very concisely Wenzel (1995), P. 320. At length on “Images as stories” Varga (1990), P. 358 f., who applies the Aristotelian distinction between argumentative and narrative types of text to images.
321.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 55 inter alia talks in this context correctly about “Text in images”. At length on this Kliemann (1990), P. 83 ff., using the example of secular wall paintings in Italy in the 15^th and early 16^th centuries.
322.
Examples from Italy analysed by Bätschmann (2001), P. 36 ff.
323.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 56 inter alia
324.
Eberleh (1990), P. 70 f. On the design of posters using image-word combinations at length Paul (2005), P. 73 ff. with practical examples.
325.
Eberleh (1990), P. 67
326.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 57, describes this as “Textual material in images”.
327.
On personification from an art history point of view van Straten (2004), P. 37 ff. with examples. On the theory of personification Warncke (2005), P. 82 ff. inter alia
328.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 57. Thoroughly on allegories and symbols in painting van Straten (2004), P. 49 ff. with many examples.
329.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 58.
330.
Bätschmann (2001), P. 102.
331.
Bätschmann (2001), P. 102. More reticent Brunschwig (2001), P. 58 f.
332.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 36 inter alia
333.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 36 f. inter alia, provides some striking proofs for it.
334.
Wenzel (1995), P. 299.
335.
Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 237. Stetter (2005), P. 115, reduces this to a formula: “The origin of writing lies in images.” At length on the phylogenic development of the human brain and of language Niemitz (1989), P. 95 ff. inter alia
336.
Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 240. Niemitz (1989), P. 105, stresses, that language phylogenetically is mainly optical, not acoustic.
337.
Leroi-Gourhan (1988), P. 244. Similarly Stetter (2005), P. 115 f.
338.
Schmitz (2003), P. 242.
339.
On the dominance of oral communication until the end of the Middle Ages Schmitz (2003), P. 241 f.
340.
Schmitz (2003), P. 242 ff. inter alia. At length on the word-image balance in legal communication see below Chap. 8.3.
341.
Schmitz (2003), P. 243 inter alia Postman (1999), P. 95 ff., laments this seriously.
342.
Schmitz (2003), P. 248 ff.
343.
On the various presentational options of images and text Schmauks (1998), P. 4.
344.
Nöth (2000), P. 492 f. inter alia
345.
Nöth (2000), P. 493 inter alia, emphasises that text and image together can quite often give rise to a holistic new interpretation of the total message. Cramer (2001), P. 133, gives an example in his detailed study of the illustrations in a famous collection of fables from 1566. An interesting special case of the text-image combination is analysed by Schmauks (1998), P. 6 ff.: In the text important information was kept quiet, but was displayed by the accompanying illustration.
346.
At length on this Meier (1990), P. 47 ff.
347.
Informative examples of this are provided by Gilbert Heß (2006), P. 174 f.
348.
On the discrepancy and contradiction of text-image combinations Nöth (2000), P. 493 f. inter alia. But sometimes the first impression can be misleading and there only appears to be a discrepancy between texts and images. At length on this problem area Cramer (2001), P. 135 ff.
349.
Durkheim (1973), P. 119.
350.
Berghaus (1986), P. 283.
351.
Thus very emphatically Berghaus (1986), P. 283. At length on the effects of languages on society and thought see above Chap. 2.1. and Chap. 2.2.
352.
At length on this Schauer (1988), P. 524 ff. inter alia, who talks in this context about “linguistic constraint”, which the law is subject to. Generally on the relationship between law and language Rüthers (1999), P.. 150 ff. inter alia
353.
Thoroughly on the question how language limits and leads jurisprudence, Schauer (1988), P. 530 ff. inter alia
354.
Brunschwig (2001), P. 37.
355.
Berghaus (1986), P. 283.
356.
At length on pictorial language Schuster (2003), P. 54 ff. On pictorial language with concrete examples of film speech Kuchenbuch (1978), P. 36.
357.
Schuster (2003), P. 55 ff., with many examples.
358.
Thus Berghaus’ theory (1986), P. 283.
359.
Berghaus (1986), P. 285.
360.
Berghaus (1986), P. 285.
361.
At length on this Schuster (2003), P. 270 ff.
362.
Schuster (2003), P. 271.
363.
Schuster (2003), P. 271.
364.
Similarly Berghaus (1986), P. 285.
365.
Thus Berghaus (1986), P. 287 ff. inter alia
366.
On the selection of information by the media Altheide (1985), P. 97 ff., who analyses the criteria by which the TV-media measure the newsworthiness of an event. At length on this also Winterhoff-Spurk (2001), P. 157 ff. inter alia, who describes the ideal TV event as “short, dramatic, bloody”.
367.
Seminally Altheide (1985), P. 131 ff. inter alia. At length on this also Winterhoff-Spurk (2005), P. 141 ff. inter alia, who describes television as the “secret educator”. An overview of the research into the effects for television is supplied by Winterhoff-Spurk (2001), P. 95 ff. inter alia
368.
Taking it much further, Winterhoff-Spurk (2005), P. 165 ff., even talks about television shaping character. On the power of images from a psychoanalytical viewpoint Tisseron (2007), P. 308 f.
369.
At length on this see below Chap. 4.1.
370.
On the guidance function of the law Rehbinder (2009), P 100 ff. inter alia

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Boehme-Neßler, V. (2011). The Power of Images. In: Pictorial Law. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11889-0_3

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