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PART III: The European Court of Human Rights’ Reluctance to Classify European Convention Violations as International Crimes Even When Those Violations Likely Constitute ‘War Crimes’ or ‘Crimes Against Humanity in Times of Armed Conflict’

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The European Court of Human Rights as a Pathway to Impunity for International Crimes

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Abstract

In this part certain cases are analyzed in which there was a reluctance by the European Court of Human Rights to even consider whether various European Convention violations may potentially have constituted ‘war crimes’ or ‘crimes against humanity in times of armed conflict’. Consideration is given to the implications of this reticence for fostering impunity. Also considered are certain troubling landmark European Convention on Human Rights Article 7 cases in which the European Court of Human Rights substituted its own characterization of the facts for that of the domestic courts and, in effect, exonerated applicants of international crimes as a by-product of its examination of whether there was State compliance with Convention Article 7.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Heintze (2004, p. 789).

  2. 2.

    Heintze (2004, p. 791).

  3. 3.

    Geneva Convention IV relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, (common Article 3). http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/6756482d86146898c125641e004aa3c5. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  4. 4.

    Heintze (2004, p. 800).

  5. 5.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98). http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  6. 6.

    Council of Europe (2007, p. 11), Presentation by Francoise Tulkens (then Judge of the European Court of Human Rights).

  7. 7.

    Council of Europe (2007, p. 12 and p. 14), Presentation by Francoise Tulkens (then Judge of the European Court of Human Rights).

  8. 8.

    Sejdic and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (applications 27996/06 and 4836/06). European Court of Human Rights case relinquished to the Grand Chamber. The Grand Chamber Judgement of 22 December, 2009 found the bar to certain elected office discriminatory. http://www.soros.org/initiatives/justice/litigation/bosnia-and-herzegovinia/grand-chamber-judgment-20091222.pdf

  9. 9.

    Council of Europe (2007, p. 21), Presentation by Lucias Caflisch (then member of the International Law Commission and Former Judge of the European Court of Human Rights).

  10. 10.

    Council of Europe (2007, p. 13), Presentation by Francoise Tulkens (Judge of the European Court of Human Rights).

  11. 11.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 13. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  12. 12.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 17. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  13. 13.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 19. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  14. 14.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 19. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  15. 15.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 19. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  16. 16.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 20. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  17. 17.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 20. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  18. 18.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights adopted by the U.N. General Assembly 16 December 1966 and entry into force 23 March 1976. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  19. 19.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 28. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  20. 20.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 29 (citation from the introduction to a section of the criminal code of the former GDR dealing with “Crimes against the national sovereignty of the German Democratic Republic, peace, humanity, and human rights”). http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  21. 21.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 30. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  22. 22.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 31. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  23. 23.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 36. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  24. 24.

    Constitution of the Former German Democratic Republic, Article 30(1) and (2) cited in European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 61. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  25. 25.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 38. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  26. 26.

    European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (as amended by Protocol Number 11 and with protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13), entry into force 1 November 1998 (original Convention adopted by the Council of Europe 1950 and entered into force 3 September 1953) (Article 19). http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/D5CC24A7-DC13-4318-B457-5C9014916D7A/0/EnglishAnglais.pdf. Accessed 17 July 2009.

  27. 27.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 51. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  28. 28.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 64. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  29. 29.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 73. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  30. 30.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 87. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  31. 31.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 90. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  32. 32.

    International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights adopted by the U.N. General Assembly 16 December 1966 and entry into force 23 March 1976, Article 6 (Rights to life). http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  33. 33.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 96. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  34. 34.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 98 and100. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  35. 35.

    European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 106. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  36. 36.

    K.H.W. v. Germany (Application no. 37201/97), European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgment of 22 March 2001. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=3&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=humanity&sessionid=28180616&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 17 August 2009.

  37. 37.

    German Law Journal (2001, para 4).

  38. 38.

    See People v. Aleman, Nos. CR 28786, 93 CR 28787, 1994 WL 684499 (Ill. Cir.1994) cited in Scheffer and Cox (2008, p. 1053).

  39. 39.

    See Commonwealth v. Gonzalez 771 N.E. 2.d 134 (Mass. 2002) cited in Scheffer and Cox (2008, p. 1053).

  40. 40.

    Rome Statute (2002). Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by process-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 (Article 20(3)). http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf. Accessed 18 August 2009.

  41. 41.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 2–5 of the concurring opinion. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  42. 42.

    Introduction to the Elements of the Crime Rome Statute, Elements of the Crime, General Introduction at point 6. http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/.../Element_of_Crimes_English.pdf. Accessed 18 August 2009.

  43. 43.

    Rome Statute (2002). Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by process-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 (Article 33). http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf. Accessed 18 August 2009.

  44. 44.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 15 of the concurring opinion. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  45. 45.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 8 of the concurring opinion of Judge Levits. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  46. 46.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 10 of the concurring opinion of Judge Levits. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  47. 47.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 11 of the concurring opinion of Judge Levits. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  48. 48.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Levits in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 16–18 of the concurring opinion of Judge Levits. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  49. 49.

    Online English Collins dictionary, definition of the German word Rechtsstaat. http://dictionary.reverso.net/german-english/Rechtsstaat. Accessed 21 August 2009.

  50. 50.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Zupancic in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), para 12 of the concurring judgment. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  51. 51.

    Concurring opinion of Judge Loucaides in the European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber judgment dated 22 March 2001 in the Case of Streletz and Kessler v. Germany (Applications 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98), 6–12. http://www.menschenrechte.ac.at/orig/01_2/Streletz.pdf. Accessed 15 August 2009.

  52. 52.

    Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia (Application 23052/04), European Court of Human Rights Chamber Judgment of 17 January 2006 on Admissibility. http://www.derechosorg/nizkor/impu/kolk.html. Accessed 21 August 2009.

  53. 53.

    Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, ratification and accession by U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2391 XXIII of 26 November 1968 and entry into force 11 November 1970. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/warcrimes.htm. Accessed 21 August 2009.

  54. 54.

    Kolk and Kislyiy v. Estonia (Application 23052/04), European Court of Human Rights Chamber Judgment of 17 January 2006 on Admissibility, para 9 under “The Law.” http://www.derechosorg/nizkor/impu/kolk.html. Accessed 21 August 2009.

  55. 55.

    Malksoo (2001, p. 765).

  56. 56.

    Malksoo (2001, p. 765).

  57. 57.

    Malksoo (2001, p. 772).

  58. 58.

    Malksoo (2001, p. 779).

  59. 59.

    Prosecutor v. Jelisic, Case IT-95-10 at para 82, cited in Malksoo (2001, p. 784).

  60. 60.

    Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, Geneva Convention relating to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Times of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 12 August 1949, entry into force 21 October 1950. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36d2.html. Accessed 24 August 2009.

  61. 61.

    U.N. Convention on the Non-Applicability of Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity, ratification and accession by U.N. General Assembly Resolution 2391 XXIII of 26 November 1968 and entry into force 11 November 1970. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/warcrimes.htm. Accessed 21 August 2009.

  62. 62.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 4, para 18IV(1). http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  63. 63.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 5, para 18 IV(4)(a). http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  64. 64.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 6, para 18 V(4)(b). http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  65. 65.

    Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, Geneva Convention relating to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Times of War (Fourth Geneva Convention), Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 12 August 1949, entry into force 21 October 1950 (Article 3(1)). http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36d2.html. Accessed 24 August 2009.

  66. 66.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, under “remittal to, and repition of the proceedings before, the Regional Court”, para 31, p. 13. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  67. 67.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, under “remittal to, and repition of the proceedings before, the Regional Court”, para 31, p. 13. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  68. 68.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, under “remittal to, and repition of the proceedings before, the Regional Court”, p. 16. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  69. 69.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, under “remittal to, and repition of the proceedings before, the Regional Court”, para 34, p. 17. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  70. 70.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, under “remittal to, and repition of the proceedings before, the Regional Court”, para 69, p. 37. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  71. 71.

    Joint dissenting opinion of Judges Lorenzen, Tulkens, Zagrebelsky, Fura-Sandstrom and Popvic in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, para 2 of the dissenting opinion at pp. 49–50. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  72. 72.

    Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, para 73, p. 38. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  73. 73.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 51 (citing Lord Millet in the Pinochet (3) case (House of Lords (1999) 2 Weekly Law reports 909). http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  74. 74.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 51 of the dissenting opinion. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  75. 75.

    Rome Statute (2002). Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by process-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 (Article 7(1)(2)). http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf. Accessed 18 August 2009.

  76. 76.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 52 of the dissenting opinion. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  77. 77.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 53. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  78. 78.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, p. 55. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  79. 79.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), 8 June 1977 (Article 13). http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/7c4d08d9b287a42141256739003e636b/d67c3971bcff1c10c125641e0052b545. Accessed 25 August 2009.

  80. 80.

    Rome Statute (2002). Text of the Rome Statute circulated as document A/CONF.183/9 of 17 July 1998 and corrected by process-verbaux of 10 November 1998, 12 July 1999, 30 November 1999, 8 May 2000, 17 January 2001 and 16 January 2002. The Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 (Article 7(1)(2)). http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/EA9AEFF7-5752-4F84-BE94-0A655EB30E16/0/Rome_Statute_English.pdf. Accessed 18 August 2009.

  81. 81.

    Malksoo (2001, p. 778).

  82. 82.

    Dissenting opinion of Judge Loucaides in Korbely v. Hungary (Application 9174/02) European Court of Human Rights Grand Chamber Judgement of 19 September 2008, para 16 of the dissenting opinion. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=korbely%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20hungary&sessionid=28582191&skin=hudoc-en.

  83. 83.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), (Article 4). http://www.icrc.org/.../d67c3971bcff1c10c125641e0052b545!OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  84. 84.

    Commentary of the International Committee of the Red Cross on Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilians in Times of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949 and on “Reprisals”. http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/COM/380-600038?OpenDocument.

  85. 85.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  86. 86.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 15. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  87. 87.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 14. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  88. 88.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 37. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  89. 89.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 39. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  90. 90.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 42. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  91. 91.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 44. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  92. 92.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 111. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  93. 93.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 111. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  94. 94.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 119. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  95. 95.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 129. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  96. 96.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 130. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  97. 97.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 131. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  98. 98.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 132. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  99. 99.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 134. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  100. 100.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 137. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

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    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 147. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  102. 102.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 44. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  103. 103.

    Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Article 4 of the annexed regulations). http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/FULL/195?OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  104. 104.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 38. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  105. 105.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 132. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  106. 106.

    Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Article 22, and Article 23(c)(d)(e) of the annexed regulations). http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/FULL/195?OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  107. 107.

    Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Article 24). http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/FULL/195?OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009. See also Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 134–137. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  108. 108.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 134. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  109. 109.

    Dehn (2008, pp. 627–653).

  110. 110.

    Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Article 46 of the annexed regulations). http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/FULL/195?OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  111. 111.

    Convention (IV) respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its annex: Regulations concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land. The Hague, 18 October 1907 (Article 24). http://www.icrc.org/IHL.NSF/FULL/195?OpenDocument. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  112. 112.

    Pinzauti (2008, footnote 15).

  113. 113.

    Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 44. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  114. 114.

    Joint dissenting opinion of Fura_Sandstrom, David Thor Bjorgvinsson and Ziemele in Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, para 2 of the dissenting opinion at pp. 10–11. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  115. 115.

    Geneva Convention IV relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Geneva, 12 August 1949 (common Article 3). http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/385ec082b509e76c41256739003e636d/6756482d86146898c125641e004aa3c5. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  116. 116.

    Pinzauti (2008, footnote 15).

  117. 117.

    Joint dissenting opinion of Fura_Sandstrom, David Thor Bjorgvinsson and Ziemele in Kononov v. Latvia (Application no. 36376/04) European Court of Human Rights Chamber judgment 24 July 2008, at para 10 of the Joint Dissenting opinion referring to the preamble of the 1907 Hague Convention. http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=1&portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Kononov%20%7C%20v%20%7C%20Latvia&sessionid=29021422&skin=hudoc-en. Accessed 1 September 2009.

  118. 118.

    Coleandrea (2007, p. 397).

  119. 119.

    Naqvi (2006, pp. 245–273).

  120. 120.

    Naqvi (2006, p. 248).

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  1. Faculty of Education, Lakehead University, 955 Oliver Road, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada, P7B 5E1

    Dr. Sonja C. Grover

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Grover, S.C. (2010). PART III: The European Court of Human Rights’ Reluctance to Classify European Convention Violations as International Crimes Even When Those Violations Likely Constitute ‘War Crimes’ or ‘Crimes Against Humanity in Times of Armed Conflict’. In: The European Court of Human Rights as a Pathway to Impunity for International Crimes. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-10799-3_3

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