Abstract
In this chapter we discuss our InSAR observations of Aleutian volcanoes that have been active during historical time, starting with Kiska Volcano in the west and ending with Mount Wrangell in the east. The start of historical time in Alaska is poorly defined and varies considerably with location. Most early eruption reports were from ship captains or other explorers in the latter part of the eighteenth century; such reports are spotty and of questionable accuracy (e.g., fumarolic activity might have been mistaken for an eruption, or an eruption might have been attributed to the wrong volcano). Records are generally better near long-lasting indigenous settlements, but these are widely scattered and mostly absent in the more remote parts of the arc. Even in the latter half of the twentieth century, many eruption reports were from pilots flying over the area; such information is incomplete and in some cases could not be independently verified. A worldwide network of Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAAC) was set up in the 1990s by the United Nations’ International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to mitigate the risks posed by drifting ash to the aviation community. The VAACs collect information from volcano observatories, satellite imagery, aircraft reports, and other sources to issue volcanic ash advisories. At least since the beginning of the twenty-first century, eruption detection around the globe has become nearly complete.
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- 1.
The surface displacements produced by a hydrostatic pressure change within a spherical cavity with radius α much smaller than its depth d and embedded in an elastic half-space (equivalent to a Mogi (1958) point source) are given by (Lisowski 2007, pp. 288–289): \( \left( \begin{gathered} u \hfill \\ v \hfill \\ w \hfill \\ \end{gathered} \right) = \alpha^{3} \Delta P\frac{{\left( {1 - \nu } \right)}}{G}\left( \begin{gathered} \frac{x}{{R^{3} }} \hfill \\ \frac{y}{{R^{3} }} \hfill \\ \frac{d}{{R^{3} }} \hfill \\ \end{gathered} \right) \) where u, v, w are displacements at the point (x,y,0), the center of the cavity is at (0,0,−d), and \( R = \sqrt {x^{2} + y^{2} + z^{2} } \) is the radial distance from the center of the cavity to a point on the free surface. The scaling coefficient, representing the power (strength) of the source, lumps together the pressure change ΔP in the cavity, its radius, the shear modulus G, and Poisson’s ratio ν of the half-space. Their individual contributions, therefore, cannot be separated. That is, a small pressure change in a large cavity will produce the same surface deformation as a large pressure change in a small cavity, provided the radius of the cavity is much smaller than its depth. A pressure increment ΔP on the inner surface of a spherical cavity with radius α will increase the cavity radius by Δα, where (McTigue 1987, Eq. 11): \( \Delta \alpha = \frac{1}{4}\frac{\Delta P}{G}\alpha \) . The volume increase in a sphere from an incremental increase in its radius is given by: \( \frac{4}{3}\pi \left( {\alpha + \Delta \alpha } \right)^{3} \) and: \( \Delta V_{cavity} \cong \frac{\Delta P}{G}\pi \alpha^{3} \) . This approximation considers only the mechanical properties of the surrounding half-space and is not equivalent to the injection or withdrawal volume ΔV fluid of a compressible fluid such as magma (Johnson et al. 2000). However, if compressibility effects are ignored and a value is assumed for the cavity radius (typically R = 1 km), it becomes possible to estimate the volume of magma added or withdraw from a subsurface reservoir to produce an observed surface deformation pattern.
- 2.
In cases like this we follow common usage by using “steam” to mean condensed water vapor. Technically speaking, steam is the invisible vapor phase of water. Plumes of condensed steam typically rise from fumaroles and sometimes from volcanic vents during eruptions.
- 3.
Formal uncertainties in model parameters derived from InSAR images are difficult to specify owing to poorly modeled error sources such as atmospheric delays and orbit errors, and also because the degree of spatial correlation among nearby pixels in deformation interferograms generally is unknown. Our estimate of 1–2 km uncertainty in the source depth is based on the observed scatter in estimates from all modeled interferograms.
- 4.
Radar pulses can be transmitted and received in various polarizations, including vertical (V) and horizontal (H). Images produced from pulses that are both transmitted and received with vertical (or horizontal) polarization are referred to as VV- (or HH-) polarized.
- 5.
D-PAF is the German Processing and Archiving Facility for ERS-1/ERS-2 data products. D-PAF jointly is operated by the German Remote Sensing Data Center (DFD) of the German Aerospace Research Center (DLR) and the Department on Kinematics and Dynamics of the Earth of the Geo Research Center Potsdam (GFZ).
- 6.
Each interferometric fringe corresponds to a range change of one-half wavelength. For the C-band SAR sensors aboard ERS-1/ERS-2, which operate at a wavelength of 5.66 cm, each fringe represents 2.83 cm of range change.
- 7.
Persistent, spatially coherent atmospheric anomalies are more likely in steep terrain, which can affect local weather. For example, tall volcanoes can set up quasi-steady patterns of water–vapor concentration both horizontally and vertically (e.g., windward clouds and leeward clear skies, or summit cap clouds and sunny flanks). Such effects can be especially troublesome at large volcanoes such as Mount Etna, Italy (Delacourt et al. 1998; Beauducel et al. 2000) and Mauna Loa, Hawai’i.
- 8.
This description applies equally well to all of the magma storage zones we envision beneath Aleutian volcanoes. Clearly, they are not idealized cavities filled with 100 % melt, as might be inferred from the source models we use to characterize them.
- 9.
Prior to the end of March 1992, ERS-1 was in 3-day repeat-pass mode. However, the imaging modes prior to 10 December 1991 and after 28 December 1991, were different. As a consequence, images acquired prior to 10 December 1991 cannot be paired with images acquired from 29 December 1991 to March 1992 to produce interferograms. We produced and analyzed all available ERS-1 interfergroams for our study of Westdahl Peak.
- 10.
The descriptor “open-conduit” is used here to refer to volcanoes that erupt frequently or for long periods of time without appreciable ground deformation except possibly very near the vent. The term does not imply the existence of a continuous magma-filled conduit from a kilometers-deep source to the surface. Such a conduit might exist in some cases such as the current situation at the summit of Kilauea volcano, Hawai‘i, where a vent that opened in March 2008 is occupied by a persistent lava lake. In such cases the term “open-vent,” implying that the magma column is exposed continuously to the atmosphere, seems more appropriate.
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Lu, Z., Dzurisin, D. (2014). InSAR Imaging of Aleutian Volcanoes. In: InSAR Imaging of Aleutian Volcanoes. Springer Praxis Books(). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-00348-6_6
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