Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Cost-Minimisation Principle of Adaptation of Private Car Use in Response to Road Pricing Schemes

  • Chapter
Road Pricing, the Economy and the Environment

Part of the book series: Advances in Spatial Science ((ADVSPATIAL))

Abstract

In this chapter, a theoretical framework is proposed with the aim of understanding reduction or changes in private car use in response to road pricing. It is argued that economic disincentives may activate car-use reduction or change goals in individuals and households. However, for car-use reduction or change goals to occur, other travel demand management measures are needed that make alternative travel options attractive. A review and classification of these other measures is provided followed by an assessment of their potential effectiveness.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Austin, J.T., Vancouver, J.B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 80: 286–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Axhausen, K., Gärling, T. (1992). Activity-based approaches to travel analysis: Conceptual frameworks, models, and research problems. Transport Reviews, 12: 323–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Banister, D. (2003). Critical pragmatism and congestion charging in London. International Social Science Journal, 55: 249–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boarnet, M., Crane, R., (2001). The influence of land use on travel behavior: specification and estimation strategies. Transportation Research A, 35: 823–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boarnet, M.G., Sarmiento, S. (1998). Can land-use policy really affect travel behaviour? A study of the link between non-work travel and land-use characteristics. Urban Studies, 35: 1155–1169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bovy, P.H.L., Salomon, I. (2002). Congestion in Europe: Measurements, patterns and policies, in: Stern, E., Salomon, I. (eds.), Travel behaviour: Spatial patterns, congestion and modelling, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK: 143–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brehmer, B. (1995). Feedback delays in complex dynamic decision making, in: Frensch, P.A., Funke, J. (eds.), Complex decision making: The European perspective, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum: 103–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cambridgeshire County Council (2005). Vehicles access to Cambridge city centre. http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/transport/around/city_access/ Retrieved 1 May, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C.S., Scheier, M.F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cervero, R. (2002). Built environments and mode choice: toward a normative framework. Transportation Research D, 7: 265–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • City of Zurich (2002). Mobilität ist Kult(ur). Die neue Mobilitätsstrategie — Wie wir miteinander weiterkommen [Mobility is Cult(ure). The New Mobility Strategy — How We Can Move Forward Together]. Civil Engineering Office, City of Zurich, Zurich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawes, R.M. (1998). Behavioral decision making, judgment, and inference, in: Gilbert, D., Fiske, S., Lindzey, G. (eds.), The handbook of social psychology, McGraw-Hill, Boston: 497–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downs, A. (1992). Stuck in traffic. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A.H., Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Forth Worth, TX.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A.H., Chaiken, S. (1998). Attitude structure and function, in: Gilbert, D., Fiske, S., Lindzey, G. (eds.), The handbook of social psychology, McGraw-Hill, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 269–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Einhorn, H.J., Hogarth, R.M. (1978). Confidence in judgment: Persistence of the illusion of validity. Psychological Review, 85: 396–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmerink, R.H.M., Nijkamp, P., Rietvald, P. (1995). Is congestion pricing a first-best strategy in transport policy? A critical review of arguments. Environment and Planning B, 22: 581–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Enoch, M., Potter, S. (2003). Encouraging the commercial sector to help employees to change their travel behaviour. Transport Policy, 10: 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foo, T.S. (1997). An effective demand management instrument in urban transport: The Area Licensing Scheme in Singapore. Cities, 14: 155–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foo, T.S. (1998). A unique demand management instrument in urban transport: the Vehicle Quota System in Singapore. Cities, 15: 27–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foo, T.S. (2000). An advanced demand management instrument in urban transport. Cities, 17: 33–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fujii, S., Gärling, T. (2003). Application of attitude theory for improved predictive accuracy of stated preference methods in travel demand analysis. Transportation Research A, 37: 389–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Kwan, M.-P., Golledge, R.G. (1994). Computational-process modeling of household activity scheduling. Transportation Research B, 25: 355–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Gillholm, R., Gärling, A. (1998). Reintroducing attitude theory in travel behavior research: The validity of an interactive interview procedure to predict car use. Transportation, 25: 147–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Gillholm, R., Montgomery, W. (1999). The role of anticipated time pressure in activity scheduling. Transportation, 26: 173–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Gärling, A., Johansson, A. (2000). Household choices of car use reduction measures. Transportation Research A, 34: 309–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Fujii, S. (2002) Structural equation modeling of determinants of implementation intentions. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 43: 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Eek, D., Loukopoulos, P., Fujii, S., Johansson-Stenman, O., Kitamura, R., Pendyala, R., Vilhelmson, B. (2002a). A conceptual analysis of the impact of travel demand management on private car use. Transport Policy, 9: 59–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gärling, T., Gärling, A., Loukopoulos, P. (2002b). Forecasting psychological consequences of car-use reduction: A challenge to an environmental psychology of transportation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 51: 90–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gatersleben, B. (2003). On yer bike for a healthy commute, in: Hendrickx, L., Jager, W., Steg, L. (eds.), Human decision making and environmental perception: Understanding and assisting human decision making in real-life settings, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands: 161–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P.M., the ABC Research Group (eds.) (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goh, M. (2002). Congestion management and electronic road pricing in Singapore. Journal of Transport Geography, 10: 29–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gollwitzer, P.M. (1993). Goal achievement: The role of intentions. European Review of Social Psychology, 4: 141–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golob, T.F. (2001). Travelbehaviour.com: Activity approaches to modeling the effects of information technology on personal travel behaviour, in: Hensher, D. (ed.), Travel behavior research: The leading edge, Pergamon, Amsterdam: 145–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, P.B. (1996). Simple arithmetic. Transport Policy, 3: 79–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, P. (1998). The end of equilibrium, in: Gärling, T., Laitila, T., Westin, K. (eds.), Theoretical foundations of travel choice modeling, Elsevier, Amsterdam: 103–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, D.L., Wegener, M. (1997). Sustainable transport. Journal of Transport Geography, 5: 177–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, M, Huang, Y. (1997). Road supply and traffic in California urban areas. Transportation Research A, 31: 205–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes-Roth, B., Hayes-Roth, F. (1979). A cognitive model of planning. Cognitive Science, 3: 275–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hensher, D.A. (1998). The imbalance between car and public transport use in urban Australia: why does it exist? Transport Policy, 5: 193–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hensher, D.A., King, J. (2001). Parking demand and responsiveness to supply, pricing and location in the Sydney central business district. Transportation Research A, 35: 177–196.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jakobsson, C. (2004). Motivational and volitional control of private automobile use: The effectiveness of transport policies. Doctoral dissertation. Göteborg University, Department of Psychology, Göteborg, Sweden.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, L.-O., Gustafsson, M., Falkemark, G., Gärling, T., Johansson-Stenman, O. (2003). Goal conflicts in political decision making: A survey of municipality politicians’ views of road pricing. Environment and Planning C, 21: 615–624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson-Stenman, O. (1999). Regulating road transport externalities: pricing versus commandand-control, in: Sterner, T. (ed.), The market and the environment, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK: 134–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, P. (2003). Acceptability of transport pricing strategies: meeting the challenge, in: Schade, J., Schlag, B. (eds.), Acceptability of transport pricing strategies, Elsevier, Oxford: 27–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, P., Dix, M.C., Clarke, M.I., Heggie, I.G. (1983). Understanding travel behavior. Gower, Aldershot, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, R., Fujii, S. (1998). Two computational process models of activity-travel choice, in: Gärling, T., Laitila, T. Westin, K. (eds.), Theoretical foundations of travel choice modeling, Elsevier, Amsterdam: 251–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, R., Fujii, S., Pas, E.I. (1997). Time-use data, analysis and modeling: Toward the next generation of transportation planning methodologies. Transport Policy, 4: 225–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, D., Moore, A., and Reja, B. (1996). Free to cruise: Creating curb space for jitneys. Access, 8: 2–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, D., Moore, A., Reja, B. (1997). Curb rights: A foundation for free enterprise in urban transit. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koslowsky, M. (1997). Commuting stress: Problems of definition and variable identification. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46: 153–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klayman, J., Ha, Y.-W. (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94: 211–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kristensen, J.P., Marshall, S. (1999). Mobility management to reduce travel: the case of Aalborg. Built Environment, 25: 138–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, T.W., Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P. (1989). Goal setting theory and performance, in: Pervin, L.A. (ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ: 291–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindberg, G. (1995). Road pricing: policy and options for the future, in: Johansson, B., Mattson, L.-G. (eds.), Road pricing: Theory, empirical assessment and policy, Kluwer, Boston, MA: 205–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Litman, T. (2003). The online TDM encyclopedia: Mobility management information gateway. Transport Policy, 10: 245–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P. (1984). Goal setting: A motivational technique that works. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, E.A., Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal-setting and task performance. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loukopoulos, P., Gärling, T., Vilhelmson, B. (2005). Mapping the potential consequences of car-use reduction in urban areas. Journal of Transport Geography, 13: 135–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loukopoulos, P., Jakobsson, C., Gärling, T., Schneider, C.M., Fujii, S. (2004). Car user responses to travel demand management measures: Goal setting and choice of adaptation alternatives. Transport Research D, 9: 263–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louw, E., Maat, K. (1999). Enschede: Measures in a package. Built Environment, 25: 118–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Louw, E., Maat, K., Mathers, S. (1998). Strategies and measures to reduce travel by car in European cities. Paper presented at the 8th World Conference on Transport Research, Antwerp, Belgium.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, A.D., Jopson, A.F., Matthews, B. (2003). Research challenges in urban transport policy. Transport Policy, 10: 157–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D. (1999). Rationality for economists? Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 19: 73–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D. (2001). Disaggregate behavioral travel demand’s RUM side — A 30 years retrospective, in: Hensher, D.A. (ed.), Travel behavior research, Elsevier, Amsterdam: 17–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, M.D. (1999). Demand management as an element of transportation policy: using carrots and sticks to influence travel behavior. Transportation Research A, 33: 575–599.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mogridge, M.J.H. (1997). The self-defeating nature of urban road capacity policy: A review of theories, disputes and available evidence. Transport Policy, 4: 5–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novaco, R.W., Kliewer, W., Broquet, A. (1991). Home environmental consequences of commute travel impedance. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19: 881–909.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Novaco, R.W., Stokols, D., Milanesi, L. (1990). Objective and subjective dimensions of travel impedance as determinants of commuting stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18: 231–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Odeck, J., Bråthen, S. (2002). Toll financing in Norway: The success, the failures and perspectives for the future. Transport Policy, 9: 253–260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pas, E.I. (1995). The urban transportation planning process, in: Hanson, S. (ed.), The geography of urban transportation, Elsevier, Amsterdam: 53–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne, J.W., Bettman, J.R., Johnson, E.J. (1993). The adaptive decision maker. Cambridge University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pendyala, R.M., Kitamura, R., Chen, C., Pas, E.I. (1997). An activity-based micro-simulation analysis of transportation control measures. Transport Policy, 4: 183–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pendyala, R.M., Kitamura, R., Reddy, D.V.G.P. (1998). Application of an activity-based travel demand model incorporating a rule-based algorithm. Environment and Planning B, 25: 753–772.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rajé, F. (2003). The impact of transport on social exclusion processes with specific emphasis on road user charging. Transport Policy, 10: 321–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothengatter, W. (2003). How good is first best? Marginal cost and other pricing principles for user charging in transport. Transport Policy, 10: 121–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Root, A. (2001). Can travel vouchers encourage more sustainable travel? Transport Policy, 8: 107–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Root, G.S., Recker, W.W. (1983). Towards a dynamic model of individual activity pattern formulation, in: Carpenter, S., Jones, P. (eds.), Recent advances in travel demand analysis, Gower, Aldershot, UK: 371–382.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose, G., Ampt, E. (2001). Travel blending: an Australian travel awareness initiative. Transportation Research D, 6: 95–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rye, T. (2002). Travel plans: do they work? Transport Policy, 9: 287–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuelson, W., Zeckhausen, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1: 7–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schuitema, G. (2003). Pricing policies in transport, in: Hendrickx, L., Jager, W., Steg, L. (eds.), Human decision making and environmental perception: Understanding and assisting human decision making in real-life settings, University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands: 203–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sipes, K.N., Mendelsohn, R. (2001). The effectiveness of gasoline taxation to manage air pollution. Ecological Economics, 36: 299–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simon, H.A. (1990). Invariants of human behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 41: 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steg, L., Vlek, C. (1997). The role of problem awareness in willingness-to-change car use and in evaluating relevant policy measures, in: Rothengatter, T., Carbonell Vaya W., Traffic and transport psychology. Theory and application, Pergamon Amsterdam: 465–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stradling, S.G., Meadows, M.L., Beatty, S. (2000). Helping drivers out of their cars. Integrating transport policy and social psychology for sustainable change. Transport Policy, 7: 207–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M.A.P., Ampt, E.S. (2003). Travelling smarter down under: policies for voluntary travel behaviour change in Australia. Transport Policy, 10: 165–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe, N., Hills, P., Jaensirisak, S. (2000). Public attitudes to TDM measures: a comparative study. Transport Policy, 7: 243–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ubbels, B., Rietveld, P., Peeters, P. (2002). Environmental effects of a kilometre charge in road transport: an investigation for the Netherlands. Transportation Research D, 7: 255–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vigar, G. (2002). The politics of mobility. Transport, the environment and public policy. Spon Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vilhelmson, B. (1999). Daily mobility and the use of time for different activities: The case of Sweden. GeoJournal, 48: 177–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vlek, C., Michon, J. (1992). Why we should and how we could decrease the use of motor vehicles in the future. IATSS Research, 15: 82–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitelegg, J., Low, N. (2003). Managing transport demand in European countries, in: Low, N., Gleeson, B. (eds.), Making urban transport sustainable, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK: 240–251.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Linköping

    Peter Loukopoulos

  2. Göteborg University, Sweden

    Tommy Gärling & Cecilia Jakobsson

  3. The Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

    Satoshi Fujii

Authors
  1. Peter Loukopoulos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tommy Gärling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Cecilia Jakobsson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Satoshi Fujii
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Business and Economics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense, Denmark

    Birgitte Sloth

  2. Danish Institute of Governmental Research, Nyropsgade 37, DK-1602, Copenhagen V., Denmark

    Morten Marott Larsen

  3. Centre for Regional and Tourism Research, Stenbrudsvej 55, DK-3730, Nexø, Bornholm, Denmark

    Bjarne Madsen

  4. Centre for Traffic and Transport, Technical University of Denmark, Building 115, Ground Floor, Office 010 Bygningstorvet, DK-2800, Lyngby, Denmark

    Otto Anker Nielsen

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Loukopoulos, P., Gärling, T., Jakobsson, C., Fujii, S. (2008). A Cost-Minimisation Principle of Adaptation of Private Car Use in Response to Road Pricing Schemes. In: Jensen-Butler, C., Sloth, B., Larsen, M.M., Madsen, B., Nielsen, O.A. (eds) Road Pricing, the Economy and the Environment. Advances in Spatial Science. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77150-0_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation