Abstract
Forest structure is a key element to determine the capacity of mountain forests to protect people and their assets against natural hazards. LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) offers new ways for describing forest structure in 3D. However, mountain forest structures are complex and creative methods are therefore needed to extract reliable structural information from LiDAR. The objective of this study was to investigate if the application of landscape metrics to a normalised canopy model (nCM) allows an automatic characterisation of forest structure. We used a generic automated approach that created height class patches based on a segmented nCM. Two multi-resolution segmentations were carried out: level 1 objects represented tree crowns and collectives of tree crowns, level 2 objects represented forest stands. Level 1 objects were classified into four height classes and subsequently overlaid with level 2 stands in order to calculate the metrics 1) canopy density and vertical layering of the forest, 2) forest gap distribution and 3) canopy roughness using the Division Index (DIVI). Canopy density values of each height class allowed the classification of the vertical layering. Distinguishing between single- and multi-layered stands, 82% of all the sample plots were correctly classified. The DIVI calculated on gaps proved to be sufficient to describe the spatial arrangement of patches and distinguish between stands with many small gaps from stands with only a few but larger gaps. Canopy roughness could not satisfactorily be described using the DIVI based on the validation plots. With the approach presented, resource and natural hazard managers can assess the structure of forest stands and as such more easily take into account the protective effect of forests.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Baatz M and Schäpe A (2000) Multiresolution segmentation—an optimization approach for high quality multi-scale image segmentation. In: Strobl J, Blaschke T, Griesebner, G. (Eds) Angewandte Geographische Informationsverarbeitung XII. Beiträge zum AGIT-Symposium Salzburg 2000, Herbert Wichmann Verlag, Kahrlsruhe, pp. 12–23.
Bahrenberg G, Giese E, Nipper J (1992) Statistische Methoden in der Geographie. Band 2 Multivariate Statistik. B.G. Teubner Stuttgart.
Bebi P (1999) Strukturen im Gebirgswald als Beurteilungsgrundlage ausgewählter Waldwirkungen. Dissertation ETH-Zürich, 125 pp.
Benz UC, Hofmann P, Willhauk G, Lingenfelder I, Heynen M (2004) Multiresolution, object-oriented fuzzy analysis of remote sensing data for GIS-ready information. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 58, pp. 239-258.
Blaschke T, Tiede, D and Heurich M (2004) 3D landscape metrics to modelling forest structue and diversity based on laser scanning data. In: The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XXXVI-8/W2, Freiburg, pp. 129-132.
Brang P (2001) Resistance and elasticity: the management of protection forests, Forest Ecology and Management 145, pp. 107–117.
Dorren LKA, Berger F, Imeson A, Maier B and Rey F (2004) Integrity, stability and management of protection forests in the European Alps. Forest Ecology and Management 195, pp. 165-176.
Dorren LKA, Berger F, Le Hir C, Mermin E, Tardif P (2005) Mechanisms, effects and management implications of rockfall in forests. Forest Ecology and Management. 215, 1–3, pp 183–195.
Frehner M, Wasser B and Schwitter R (2005) Nachhaltigkeit und Erfolgskontrolle im Schutzwald - Wegleitung für Pflegemassnahmen in Wäldern mit Schutzfunktion. BUWAL, Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft, Bern.
Ginzler C, Bärtschi H, Bedolla A, Brassel P, Hägeli Hauser M, Kamphues H, Laranjeiro L, Mathys L, Uebersax D, Weber E, Wicki P, Zulliger D (2005) Luftbildinterpretation LFI3 – Interpretationsanleitung zum dritten Landesforestinventar. Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft WSL. Birmensdorf. 87 pp.
Hall SA, Burke IC, Box DO, Kaufmann MR and Stoker JM (2005) Estimating stand structure using discrete-return lidar: an example from low density, fire prone ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecology and Management 208, pp. 189-209.
Herold A and Ulmer U (2001) Stand stability in the Swiss National Forest Inventory: assessment technique, reproducibility and relevance. Forest Ecology and Management 145, pp. 29-42.
Hyyppä J, Yu X, Hyyppä H and Maltamo M (2006) Methods of Airborne Laser Scanning for Forest Information Extraction. In: Koukal T and Schneider W (Eds.) Proceedings of International Workshop on 3D Remote Sensing in Forestry. Vienna, pp. 63-78.
Jaeger JAG (2000) Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecology 15, pp. 115-130.
Keller M (Red) 2005 Schweizerisches Landesforstinventar. Anleitung für die Feldaufnahmen der Erhebung 2004-2007. Birmensdorf, Eidgenössische Forschungsanstalt WSL. 393 p.
Kraus K and Pfeifer N (1998) Determination of terrain models in wooded areas with airborne laser scanner data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 53, pp. 193-203.
Lang S and Tiede D (2003) vLATE Extension für ArcGIS – vektorbasiertes Tool zur quantitativen Landschaftsstrukturanalyse, ESRI Anwenderkonferenz 2003 Innsbruck. CDROM
Lertzmann KP, Sutherland GD, Inselberg, A, Saunders, SC (1996) Canopy gaps and the landscape mosaic in a coasteal temperate rain forest. Ecology 77(4) pp. 1254–1270.
Lim K, Treitz P, Wulder M, St-Onge B and Flood M (2003) LiDAR remote sensing of forest structure. Progress in Physical Geography 27, pp. 88-106.
Maier B (2007a) Zählen Messen Schätzen – Waldinventur im Standeswald. In: Malin H, Maier B, Dönz-Breuss M. (Ed.) Montafoner Standeswald – Beiträge zur Geschichte und Gegenwart eines kommunalen Forstbetriebes. Montafoner Schriftenreihe 18 pp. 43-66.
Maier B (2007b) Characterising Mountain Forest structure using Airborne Laser Scanning. Thesis. Department for Geography and Geology. Salzburg University
Maltamo H, Eerikäinen K, Pitkänen J, Hyyppä J and Vehmas M (2004) Estimation of timber volume and stem density based on scanning laser altimetry and expected tree size distribution functions. Remote Sensing of Environment 90, pp. 319-330.
McGarigal K and Marks BJ (1995) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-351.
Naesset E (2004) Practical Large-scale Forest Stand Inventory Using a Small-footprint Airborne Scanning Laser. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 19:164-179.
Ott E, Frehner M, Frey H-U, Lüscher P (1997) Gebirgsnadelwälder – Ein praxisorientierter Leitfaden für eine standortgerechte Waldbehandlung. Paul Haupt Bern.
Parker GG and Brown MJ (2000) Forest Canopy Stratification - is it Useful? The American Naturalist 155, pp. 473–484
Schieler K and Hauk E (2001) Instruktion für die Feldarbeit – österreichische Waldinventur 2000/2002. Forstliche Bundesversuchsanstalt FBVA. Wien.
Schönenberger W (2001) Structure of mountain forests: Assessment, impacts, management, modelling. Forest Ecology and Management 145, pp. 1-2.
Tiede D, Heurich M and Blaschke T (2004) Object-based semi automatic mapping of forest stands with Laser scanner and Multi-spectral data. In: The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol. XXXVI-8W2, Freiburg, pp. 328-333.
Traub B, Klein Ch (1996) Quantitative Charakterisierung von Waldlfächenformen. Allg. Forst- u. J.-Ztg. 168(2), pp. 30-40.
Venema HD, Calamai PH, Fieguth P (2005) Forest structure optimization using evolutionalry programming and landscape ecology metrics. European Journal of Operational Research 164, pp. 423-439.
Wagner W, Eberhöfer C, Hollaus M, Summer G (2004) Robust Filtering of Airborne Laser Scanner Data for Vegetation Analysis, International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. XXXVI (Part 8/W2), pp. 56-61.
Zimble DA, Evans DL, Carlson GC, Parker RC, Grado SC, Gerard PD (2003) Characterizing vertical forest structure using small-footprint airborne LiDAR. Remote Sensing of Environment 87, pp. 171-182.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Maier, B., Tiede, D., Dorren, L. (2008). Characterising mountain forest structure using landscape metrics on LiDAR-based canopy surface models. In: Blaschke, T., Lang, S., Hay, G.J. (eds) Object-Based Image Analysis. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77058-9_34
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-77058-9_34
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-77057-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-77058-9
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)