Reactive sputtering of materials can be carried out using a number of different types of plasma excitation methods including DC, RF, Pulsed DC and AC, with the power applied to a sputter cathode. The usual configuration adopted in industry is the magnetron, operated typically in the so-called unbalanced mode. Although DC and RF excitation are often employed in non-reactive plasmas, with each technique having its own particular advantages (e.g. DC is high rate, RF can sputter many types of targets), it has become common when introducing reactive gases like oxygen or nitrogen to modulate the discharge power by pulsing the driving voltage waveform.
This chapter reviews most of the recent investigations of reactive sputter deposition processes using plasma diagnostic techniques. Special emphasis is placed on the increasingly popular method of mid-frequency pulsed magnetron sputtering. Despite being closely related, the relatively new technique of high-power pulsed ionised magnetron sputtering (HPPMS or HIPIMS, see, e.g. [5, 6]) with extremely short voltage pulses compared to pulse repetition time, is not covered in much detail here. The chapter is subdivided into different plasma diagnostic methods such as electric probes, mass spectrometry, optical emission spectroscopy (OES) and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF). Each method is briefly described and its application to particular aspects of reactive sputtering is presented.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
S. Schiller, K. Goedicke, J. Reschke, V. Kirchhoff, S. Schneider, F. Milde, Surf. Coat. Technol. 61(1–3), 331–337 (1993)
W.D. Sproul, Vacuum 51, 641–646 (1998)
A. Belkind, A. Freilich, R. Scholl, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 17, 1934–1940 (1999)
M.E. Graham, W.D. Sproul, in 37th Annual Technical Conference Proceedings ed. by Society of Vacuum Coaters, 1994, pp. 275–279
U. Helmersson, M. Lattemann, J. Böhlmark, A.P. Ehiasarian, J.T. Gudmundsson, Thin Solid Films 513, 1–24 (2006)
A.P. Ehiasarian, W.D. Münz, L. Hultman, U. Helmersson, I. Petrov, Surf. Coat. Technol. 163–164, 267–272 (2003)
I. Langmuir, H. Mott-Smith, Gen. Electr. Rev. 27(7), 449–455 (1923)
H. Mott-Smith, I. Langmuir, Phys. Rev. 28, 727–763 (1926)
B. Chapman, Glow Discharge Processes, Chap. 2 (Wiley, New York, 1980), ISBN: 047107828X
J.D. Swift, M.J.R. Schwar, Electrical Probes for Plasma Diagnostics (Iliffe Books, London, 1970)
P.M. Chung, L. Talbot, K.J. Touryan, Electric Probes in Stationary and Flowing Plasmas: Theory and Application (Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 1975)
F.F. Chen, Electric Probes. in Plasma Diagnostic Techniques, Chap. 4, ed. by R.H. Huddlestone, S.L. Leonard (Academic Press, New York, 1965), ISBN: 0123591503
E.O. Johnson, L. Malter, Phys. Rev. 80, 58–68 (1950)
A.A. Sonin, AIAA J. 4(9), 1588–1966 (1966)
K. Yamamoto, T. Okuda, J. Phys. Soc. Jpn. 11(1), 57–68 (1956)
S. Klagge, M. Tichy, Czech. J. Phys. 35, 988–1006 (1985)
N. Hershkowitz, B. Nelson, J. Pew, D. Gates, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 54(1), 29–34 (1983)
M.A. Makowski, G.A. Emmert, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 54(7), 830–836 (1983)
A. Belkind, A. Freilich, G. Song, Z. Zhao, R. Scholl, E. Bixon, Surf. Coat. Technol. 174–175, 88–93 (2003)
A. Belkind, Z. Zhao, R. Scholl, Surf. Coat. Technol. 163–164, 695–702 (2003)
D.A. Glocker, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 11(6), 2989–2993 (1993)
J.W. Lee, J.J. Cuomo, M. Bourham, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 22(2), 260–263 (2004)
L. Mahoney, G. McDonough, D. Carter, G. Roche, H. Walde, in 46th AVS International Symposium, Seatlle, Washington, USA, Oct. 25–29, 1999
S.H. Seo, J.H. In, H.Y. Chang, J.G. Han, Appl. Phys. Lett, 86, Art. No. 262103 (2005)
J.W. Bradley, H. Bäcker, P.J. Kelly, R.D. Arnell, Surf. Coat. Technol. 135, 221–228 (2001)
R.D. Arnell, P.J. Kelly, J.W. Surf. Coat. Technol. 188–189, 158–163 (2004)
A. Belkind, A. Freilich, J. Lopez, Z. Zhao, W. Zhu, K. Becker, N. J. Phys. 7, Art. No. 90 (2005)
J.W. Bradley, H. Bäcker, P.J. Kelly, R.D. Arnell, Surf. Coat. Technol. 142–144, 337–341 (2001)
J.W. Bradley, H. Bäcker, Y. Aranda-Gonzalvo, P.J. Kelly, R.D. Arnell, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 11, 165–174 (2002)
H. Bäcker, P.S. Henderson, J.W. Bradley, P.J. Kelly, Surf. Coat. Technol. 174–175, 909–913 (2003)
H. Bäcker, J.W. Bradley, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 14, 419–431 (2005)
S.H. Seo, J.H. In, H.Y. Chang, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 15, 256–265 (2006)
S.H. Seo, J.H. In, H.Y. Chang, J.G. Han, J. App. Phys. 98, Art. No. 043301 (2005)
S.H. Seo, J.H. In, H.Y. Chang, J. Appl. Phys. 98, 083302 (2005)
V. Stranak, P. Adamek, J. Blazek, P. Spatenka, Z. Hubicka, M. Tichy, R. Hippler, S. Wrehde, Czech. J. Phys. 56, B1364–B1370 (2006)
V. Stranak, Z. Hubicka, P. Adamek, J. Blazek, M. Tichy, P. Spatenka, R. Hippler, S. Wrehde, Surf. Coat. Technol. 201, 2512–2519 (2006)
F. Richter, T. Welzel, T. Dunger, H. Kupfer, Surf. Eng. 20, 163–166, 400 (2004)
F. Richter, T. Welzel, T. Dunger, H. Kupfer, Surf. Coat. Technol. 188,189, 384–391 (2004)
T. Welzel, T. Dunger, H. Kupfer, F. Richter, J. Appl. Phys. 96, 6994–7001 (2004)
T. Dunger, T. Welzel, S. Welzel, F. Richter, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200, 1676–1682 (2005)
T. Welzel, T. Dunger, S. Welzel, H. Kupfer, F. Richter, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200, 630–633 (2005)
T. Welzel, T. Dunger, F. Richter, Surf. Coat. Technol. 201, 3959–3963 (2006)
T. Welzel, T. Dunger, F. Richter, Two Dimensional Double Probe Study of the Temporal Evolution of the Charge Carrier Density in a Pulsed Magnetron, Plasma Process. Polym. accepted (2007)
D. Depla, S. Heirwegh, S. Mahieu, J. Haemers, R. De Gryse, J. Appl. Phys. 101, Art. No. 013301 (2007)
I. Swindells, P.J. Kelly, J.W. Bradley, N. J. Phys. 8, Art. No. 47 (2006)
S.K. Karkari, H. Bäcker, D. Forder, J.W. Bradley, Meas. Sci. Technol. 13, 1431–1436 (2002)
S.H. Seo, J.H. In, H.Y. Chang, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 14, 576–580 (2005)
J. Vlcek, A.D. Pajdarova, J. Musil, Contrib. Plasma Phys. 44, 426–436 (2004)
J. Musil, J. Lestina, J. Vlcek, T. Tölg, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 19(2), 420–424 (2001)
H. Bäcker, J.W. Bradley, P.J. Kelly, R.D. Arnell, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 34, 2709–2714 (2001)
J.W Bradley, H. Bäcker, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200, 616–619 (2005)
J.W. Bradley, S.K. Karkari, A. Vetushka, Surf. Eng. 20, 186–189 (2004)
S.K Karkari, A. Vetushka, J.W. Bradley, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 21(6), L28–L32 (2003)
A. Vetushka, S.K. Karkari, J.W. Bradley, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 22(6), 2459–2468 (2004)
J.W. Bradley, S.K. Karkari, A. Vetushka, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 13, 189–198 (2004)
M. Zeuner, in Plasma Polymer Films, Chap. 4, ed. by H. Biederman (Imperial College Press, London, 2004), ISBN: 1860944671
K.E. Jarvis, A.L. Gray, J.G. Williams (eds.), in Plasma Source Mass Spectrometry (Royal Society of Chemistry, London, 1990), ISBN: 0851865674
P.H. Dawson, Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry and its Applications (Elsevier, Oxford, 1976), ISBN: 0444413456
G.O. Brink, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 37, 857 (1966)
W. Paul, H. Steinwedel, Z. Naturforsch. A: Phys. Sci. 8(7), 448–450 (1953)
R. Snyders, R. Gouttebaron, J.P. Dauchot, M. Hecq, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 18, 618–623 (2003)
R. Snyders, R. Gouttebaron, J.P. Dauchot, M. Hecq, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(1–4), 448–452 (2005)
J. Neidhardt, L. Hultman, B. Abendroth, R. Gago, W. Möller, J. Appl. Phys. 94(11), 7059–7066 (2003)
N. Martin, O. Banakh, A.M.E. Santo, S. Springer, R. Sanjines, J. Takadoum, F. Levy, Appl. Surf. Sci. 185(1–2), 123–133 (2001)
N. Martin, A.M.E. Santo, R. Sanjines, F. Levy, Surf. Coat. Technol. 138(1), 77–83 (2001)
I. Petrov, A. Myers, J.E. Greene, J.R. Abelson, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 12(5), 2846–2854 (1994)
K. Ellmer, D. Lichtenberger, Surf. Coat. Technol. 74–75(1–3), 586–593 (1995)
R. Kaltofen, T. Sebald, G. Weise, Thin Solid Films 308, 118–125 (1997)
R. Kaltofen, T. Sebald, G. Weise, Thin Solid Films 291, 112–119 (1996)
D. Leonhardt, C. Muratore, S.G. Walton, R.A. Meger, Surf. Coat. Technol. 188, 299–306 (2004)
M. Misina, L.R. Shaginyan, M. Macek, P. Panjan, Surf. Coat. Technol. 142–144, 348–354 (2001)
M. Misina, Surf. Coat. Technol. 169, 53–56 (2003)
C. Muratore, J.J. Moore, J.A. Rees, Surf. Coat. Technol. 163, 12–18 (2003)
Y.M. Kim, Y.M. Chung, M.J. Jung, J. Vlcek, J. Musil, J.G. Han, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(1–4), 835–840 (2005)
T. Moiseev, D.C. Cameron, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200(18–19), 5306–5317 (2006)
T. Moiseev, D.C. Cameron, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 23(1), 66–71 (2005)
S.A. Voronin, G.C.B. Clarke, M. Cada, P.J. Kelly, J.B. Bradley, Meas. Sci. Technol. 18, 1872–1876 (2007)
M. Misina, J.W. Bradley, H. Bäcker, Y. Aranda-Gonzalvo, S.K. Karkari, D. Forder, Vacuum 68(2),171–181 (2002)
S. Mráz, J.M. Schneider, Appl. Phys. Lett. 89, 051502 (2006)
S. Mráz, J.M. Schneider, J. Appl. Phys. 100, Art. No. 023503 (2006)
S. Mahieu, D. Depla, Appl. Phys. Lett. 90, Art. No. 121117 (2007)
K. Tominga, M. Chong, Y. Shintani, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 12, 1435–1438 (1994)
P.D. Rack, M.D. Potter, A. Woodard, S. Kurinec, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 17, 2805–2810 (1999)
J.M. Andersson, E. Wallin, E.P. Munger, U. Helmersson, J. Appl. Phys. 100(3), Art. No. 033305 (2006)
J.M. Andersson, E. Wallin, E.P. Munger, U.U. Helmersson, Appl. Phys. Lett 88(5), Art. No. 054101 (2006)
K. Behringer, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 33(9), 997–1028 (1991)
R.W.P. McWhirter, in Plasma Diagnostic Techniques, Chap. 5, ed. by R.H. Huddlestone, S.L. Leonard (Academic Press, New York, 1965), ISBN: 0123591503
K. Behringer, U. Fantz, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 27(10), 2128–2135 (1994)
S. Schiller, U. Heisig, C. Korndörfer, G. Beister, J. Reschke, K. Steinfelder, J. Strümpfel, Surf. Coat. Technol. 33, 405–423 (1987)
I. Safi, Surf. Coat. Technol. 127, 203–219 (2000)
V. Kirchhoff, U. Heisig, Surf. Coat. Technol. 59, 101–104 (1993)
A. Belkind, W. Zhu, J. Lopez, K. Becker, Plasma Sources. Sci. Technol. 15, S17–S25 (2006)
T. Welzel, S. Welzel, F. Richter, in Proceedings of the 27th International Conference on Phenomena in Ionised Gases, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, July 17–22, 2005, ed. by E.M. van Veldhuizen, ISBN: 9038622317
J. Lopez, W. Zhu, A. Freilich, A. Belkind, K. Becker, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 38, 1769–1780 (2005)
J.E. Chilton, J.B. Boffard, R.S. Schappe, C.C. Lin, Phys. Rev. A 57(1), 267–277 (1998)
G.A. Piech, J.B. Boffard, M.F. Gehrke, L.W. Anderson, C.C. Lin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81(2), 309–312 (1998)
M. Cada, Z. Hubicka, V. Kulikovsky, P. Adamek, J. Olejnicek, P. Bohac, Surf. Coat. Technol. 200, 3861–3867 (2006)
N.H. Abel, J. Reine Angew. Math. 1, 153–157 (1826)
F.G. Tomasel, D. Carter, H. Walde, J.J. González, G. McDonough, G.A. Roche, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 12, 139–141 (2003)
W. Zhu, G. Buyle, J. Lopez, S. Shanmugmurthy, A. Belkind, K. Becker, R. De Gryse, N. J. Phys. 8, Art. No. 146 (2006)
W. Zhu, in American Physical Society, 36th Meeting of the Division of Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics, May 17–21, 2005, Abstract #D6.108 (05/2005-2005APS. DMP.D6108Z)
J.W. Bradley, G.C.B. Clarke, N.S.J. Braithwaite, P.M. Bryant, P.J. Kelly, Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 15, S44–S50 (2006)
S. Kvasnica, P. Adamek, P. Spatenka, IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 33(2), 364–365 (2005)
S. Miyake, N. Shimura, T. Makabe, A. Itoh, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 10(4), 1135–1139 (1992)
W. Demtröder, Laser Spectroscopy – Basic Concepts and Instrumentation (Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, 2002)
M. Röwekamp, A. Goehlich, H.F. Döbele, Appl. Phys. A: Mater. Sci. Process. 54(1), 61–67 (1992)
P. Bogen, in Proceedings of the XVI International Conference on Phenomena in Ionised Gases, ed. by W. Bötticher, H. Wenk, Schultz-Gulde E, Invited Papers, 1983, pp. 164–173
B. Krames, T. Glenewinkel-Meyer, J. Meichsner, J. Appl. Phys. 89(6), 3115–3120 (2001)
A. Goehlich, T. Kawetzki, H.F. Döbele, J. Chem. Phys. 108(22), 9362–9370 (1998)
M.J. Goeckner, Thesis Ph.D.: The University of Iowa, Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 52–03, Section: B, p. 1508. (00/1990(c) 1990: UMI Company1990PhDT 143G), 1990
D. Gracin, R. Denkelmann, S. Maurmann, Z. Andreic, Contrib. Plasma Phys. 40(1–2), 120–125 (2000)
K. Shibagaki, N. Nafarizal, K. Sasaki, J. Appl. Phys. 98(4), Art. No. 043310 (2005)
N. Nafarizal, N. Takada, K. Nakamura, Y. Sago, K. Sasaki, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24(6), 2206–2211 (2006)
N. Nafarizal, N. Takada, K. Shibagaki, K. Nakamura, Y. Sago, K. Sasaki, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Part 2 44(20–23), L737–L739 (2005)
Y. Matsuda, M. Muta, H. Fujiyama, Thin Solid Films 345(1), 167–171 (1999)
M. Muta, S. Ohgushi, Y. Matsuda, Thin Solid Films 341(1–2), 221–224 (1999)
J.S. Gao, N. Nafarizal, K. Sasaki, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 24(6), 2100–2104 (2006)
Th. Welzel, Th. Pfeifer, Th. Dunger, F. Richter, Surf. Coat. Technol. 166(1), 51–59 (2003)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Bradley, J.W., Welzel, T. (2008). Process Diagnostics. In: Depla, D., Mahieu, S. (eds) Reactive Sputter Deposition. Springer Series in Materials Science, vol 109. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76664-3_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76664-3_8
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-76662-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-76664-3
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)