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Hydrothermal and Ammonothermal Growth of ZnO and GaN

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Springer Handbook of Crystal Growth

Part of the book series: Springer Handbooks ((SHB))

Abstract

Zinc oxide (ZnO) and gallium nitride (GaN) are wide-bandgap semiconductors with a wide array of applications in optoelectronic and electronics. The lack of low-cost, low-defect ZnO and GaN substrates has slowed development and hampered performance of devices based on these two materials. Their anisotropic crystal structure allows the polar solvents, water and ammonia, to dissolve and crystallize ZnO and GaN at high pressure. Applying the techniques used for hydrothermal production of industrial single-crystal quartz to ZnO and GaN opens a pathway for the inexpensive growth of relatively larger crystals that can be processed into semiconductor wafers. This chapter will focus on the specifics of the hydrothermal growth of ZnO and the ammonothermal growth of GaN, emphasizing requirements for industrial scale growth of large crystals. Phase stability and solubility of hydrothermal ZnO and ammonothermal GaN is covered. Modeling of thermal and fluid flow gradients is discussed and simulations of thermal and temperature profiles in research-grade pressure systems are shown. Growth kinetics for ZnO and GaN respectively are reviewed with special interest in the effects of crystalline anisotropy on thermodynamics and kinetics. Finally, the incorporation of dopants and impurities in ZnO and GaN and how their incorporation modifies electrical and optical properties are discussed.

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Abbreviations

ALUM:

aluminum potassium sulfate

CL:

cathode-ray luminescence

CL:

cathodoluminescence

CMOS:

complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor

DMS:

discharge mass spectroscopy

DVD:

digital versatile disk

EPR:

electron paramagnetic resonance

FWHM:

full width at half-maximum

GDMS:

glow-discharge mass spectrometry

GS:

growth sector

HPAT:

high-pressure ammonothermal technique

HVPE:

halide vapor-phase epitaxy

HVPE:

hydride vapor-phase epitaxy

IR:

infrared

KDP:

potassium dihydrogen phosphate

LED:

light-emitting diode

MMIC:

monolithic microwave integrated circuit

MOCVD:

metalorganic chemical vapor deposition

MOCVD:

molecular chemical vapor deposition

PL:

photoluminescence

PT:

pressure–temperature

RF:

radiofrequency

SAW:

surface acoustical wave

SEM:

scanning electron microscope

SEM:

scanning electron microscopy

SIMS:

secondary-ion mass spectrometry

SWBXT:

synchrotron white beam x-ray topography

TDMA:

tridiagonal matrix algorithm

UV:

ultraviolet

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. GreenTech Solutions, 92 Old Pine Drive, 02341, Hanson, MA, USA

    Michael J. Callahan

  2. Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 15 Bei Si Huan Xi Road, 100190, Beijing, China

    Qi-Sheng Chen

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  1. Michael J. Callahan
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  2. Qi-Sheng Chen
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Correspondence to Michael J. Callahan or Qi-Sheng Chen .

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  1. Advanced Renewable Energy Company, 18 Celina Avenue, 03063, Nashua, NH, USA

    Govindhan Dhanaraj Dr.

  2. Department of Geology, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, 570 006, Mysore, India

    Kullaiah Byrappa Ph.D.

  3. University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle, 76203-5017, Denton, TX, USA

    Vishwanath Prasad Dr.

  4. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stony Brook University, 11794-2275, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Michael Dudley Dr.

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Callahan, M.J., Chen, QS. (2010). Hydrothermal and Ammonothermal Growth of ZnO and GaN. In: Dhanaraj, G., Byrappa, K., Prasad, V., Dudley, M. (eds) Springer Handbook of Crystal Growth. Springer Handbooks. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74761-1_19

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